| | . | | ir. POouRNAL “om AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL: SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES FOR 1900. (INCORPORATED 1881.) Ww Oils. XXXLYV. EDITED BY THE HONORARY SECRETARIES. THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE STATEMENTS MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN. PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, 5 ELIZABETH STREET NORTH, SYDNEY. LONDUN AGENTS: GEORGE ROBERTSON & Co., PROPRIETARY LIMITED, . 17 WaRWICK SQUARE, PATERNOSTER Row, Lonpon, E.C. 1900. NOTICE. Tue Roya Society of New South Wales originated in 1821 as the ‘Philosophical Society of Australasia”; after an interval of inactivity, it was resuscitated in 1850, under the name of the *¢ Australian Philosophical Society,” by which title it was known until 1856, when the name was changed to the ‘ Philosophical Society of New South Wales”; in 1866, by the sanction of Her Most Gracious Majesty the Queen, it assumed its present title, and was incorporated by Act of the Parliament of New South Wales in 1881. is yl Beer ie Re TO AUTHORS. Authors of papers desiring illustrations are advised to consult the editors (Honorary Secretaries) before preparing their drawings. Unless otherwise specially permitted, such drawings should be carefully executed to a large scale on smooth white Bristol board in intensely black Indian ink; so as to admit of the blocks being prepared directly therefrom, in a form suitable for photographic ‘“‘process.” The size of a full page plate in the Journal is 44 in. x 62in. The cost of all original drawings, and of colouring plates must be borne by Authors. CORRIGENDA. Page 18, line 19 from the top: place the H in this line of the formula on to the next lower line and a little below the line, thus :— ae HN—O—N/ \ H Page 23, line 15 from the top, for ‘ a,’ read ‘ an.’ » 28, line 19 from the top, insert the foot-note number, < !.’ » 28, second line from the bottom, for ‘ Beyerinck,’ read ‘Bejerinck.’ . » 29, fifth line from the bottom, for ‘ years,’ read ‘ years’.’ » 88, Formula (3), substitute p for q, as index of the second quantity in brackets, in the B term. . » 48, Formula (19), the z in Az should be a suffix. » 44, Prop. (e), interpolate ‘two’ between ‘the’ and ‘ positive.’ » 59, Table IX , put A after 7 in the second line of formule. » 61, Formula (51), the index of k should be 7, not p. » 64, Table XI., the bracket is omitted before aA. » 118, Note on an Obsidian “Bomb” from N.S.W., ‘with Plate vi.’ omitted. » 149, for ‘ ogui,’ read ‘ ogni,’ » 181, for ‘ toiles,’ read ‘ étoiles.’ » 263, insert after ‘and,’ and before ‘camped’ on line 2, ‘one of us [R. H. Mathews] having.’ », 289 and 291, for ‘E. cneroifolia,’ read ‘H. cneorifolia.’ Vol. <5 II. s ITT. ae IV. be Vi. a VI. a VII. 3 VIII, ne IX. be) pa XI. ee XIT TLL oe he XG 2 OVE ek XV VLD 5 Xvi Dg SOX ae XX, py) UKM, Ut 5-O:40 . XXMI XXIV; oe XEXEV I: OX Vil PxOxvall » XXVIII XOXO OH ARKO XO Se eXeXeXGl ox XOX EXERGY, PUBLICATIONS. O Transactions of the Philosophical Society, N.S. W., 1862-5, pp. 374, out of print. I. Transactions of the Royal Society, N.S. W., 1867, pp. 88, _,, X. Journal and Proceedings 39 99 29 3: 99 bb) 1868, ,, 1205. 1869, ,, 173, a 1870, ,, 106, 85 1871, S 72, ” 1872, ,, 123, - 1873, ,, 182, 9 1874, ,,116, _,, 1875, ,, 2385, —,, 1876, ,, 3383, 44, 1877, 9 305, ” 1878, ,, 324, price10s.6d. 1879, ,, 255, ,, 10s. 6d. 1880, ,, 391, ,, 10s. 6d. 1881, ,, 440, ,, 10s. 6d. 1882, ,, 327, ,, 10s. 6d. 1883, ,, 324, ,, 10s. 6d. 1884, ,, 224, ,, 10s. 6d. 1885, ,, 240, ,, 10s. 6d. 1886, ,, 396, ,, 10s. 6d. 1887, ,, 296, ,, 10s. 6d. 1888, ,, 390. ,, 10s. 6d. 1889, ,, 5384, ,, 10s. 6d. 1890, ,, 290, ,, 10s. 6d. 1891, ,, 348, ,, 10s. 6d. 1892, ,, 426, ,, 10s. 6d. 1893, ,, 580, ,, 10s. 6d. 1894, ,, 368, ,, 10s. 6d. 1895, ,, 600, ,, 10s. 6d. 1896, ,, 568, ,, 10s. 6d. 1897, ,, 626, ,, 10s. 6d. 1898, ,, 476, ,, 10s. 6d. 1899, ,, 400, ,, 10s. 6d. 1900, ,, 484, ,, 10s. 6d. w i) CONTENTS. VOLUME XXXIV. ; Orricers FOR 1900-1901 List or Mempers, Xe. ... as das uae AaE ENG Art. I.—Presipent’s Appress. By W. M. Hamlet, F.1.c., F.C.s. Art, II.—On the relation, in determining the volumes of solids, whose parallel.transverse sections are ni* functions of their - position on the axis, between the number, position, and coefficients of the sections, and the (positive) indices of the functions. By G. H. Knibbs, F.R.A.8. wit Arr. III.—On the amyl ester of eudesmic acid, Coourane in Eucalyptus Oils. By Henry G. Smith, r.c.s. : Art. IV.—Note on a new Meteorite from New South Wales. By R. T. Baker F.u.s. (Platei.) . we Art. V.—Notes on Rack Railways. By C. oO mes M. Inst. C.E. ArT. VI.—Notes on the damage caused by lightning to Seal Rocks Lighthouse on 10th July,1900. By C. W. Darley, M.Inst.C.E. (Plate i.) . Sb Art. VII.—The ieniptiage: weapons sid aimaatnetaves of ane ioe gines of Port Stephens, N.S.W. By, W. J. Enright, B.a. (Communicated by R. H. Mathews, L.s.) (Plates iii., iv.)... Arr, VIII.—Note on an obsidian “Bomb” from New South Wales. By R. T. Baker, F.u.s. (Plate vi.) Art. [X.—Marriage and descent among the ‘Austen “Npéet gines. By R. H. Mathews, L.s. : an Art. X.—On the constituent of peppermint Saou Sccnning in many Eucalyptus Oils, Part I. By Henry G. Smith, F.c.s. - Art. XI.—On a Eucalyptus Oil containing 60 per cent. of geranyl acetate. By Henry G. Smith, F.cs. ... is Die wid Art. XII.—The Sun’s motion in Space. Part I. History and Bibliography. By G. H. Knibbs, F.R.a.s. Art. XIII.—Intercolonial Water Rights as affected by Moderation! By H. G. McKinney, M. Inst.c.E. (Plate v.) Art. XIV.—On the crystalline structure of some Silver ana Copper Nuggets. By A. ee: M.A., LL.D., F.B.S. Plates vii. — 1x. Art. XV.—On the epedniline, Mrueture ae some ‘eotd Napeete from Victoria, New Zealand, and Klondyke. By A. Liver- sidge, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. Plates x.—xiii. Re ues Paau. (vii.) (xi.) if 36 72 81 8A, 98 103 118 120 136 142 148 233 255 259 (vi) PAGE Art. XVI.—The organisation, language and initiation ceremonies of the Aborigines of the South-east Coast of N. S. Wales. By R. H. Mathews, t.s., and Miss M. M. Everitt ... . 262 Arr. XVII.—Tables to facilitate the location of the Cubic Paratoln By C. J. Merfield, F.R,a.s. 5 281 Art. XVIII.—On a new aromatic aldehyde soonrineg in Eueainpene Oils. By Henry G. Smith, F.c.s. ae 286 Art. XIX.—Annual Address to the Bugineering Sections By Norman Selfe, M, Inst, C.E, Shee ee a Art. XX.—Curved concrete walls for storage reservoirs. By C. W. Darley, M. Inst. C.E.. " oe MED Art. XXI.—Experimental inv ecti pate on ‘the strength of brick- work when subjected to compressive and transverse stresses. By Professor W. H. Warren, M. Inst. C.E., M. Am, Soc.C.E., and S. H. Barraclough, B.E., M.M.E., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E, beh we. LXIII. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS ... es ae ee he 1. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ENGINEERING Seaton Bae ti et ewe INDEX TO VoLUME XXXIV. ... 360 ans oa en (xxvii.) 7" Koval Society of Nebo South cHales. @Qimepe ees Oi LoOOO-1907 . Honorary President: HIS EXCELLENCY THE RIGHT HON. WILLIAM, EARL BEAUCHAMP, xk.c.m.e. President: Pror. LIVERSIDGEH, m.A., Lu.D., F.R.8. Vice-Presidents: CHARLES MOORE, F.t.s. HENRY DEANE, M.A., M. Inst. C.E. Pror. T. W. E. DAVID, B.A., F.R.s. W. M. HAMLET, F.c.s., F.1.¢. Hon. Treasurer: H. G. A. WRIGHT, m.R.¢.s. Eng., u.s.a. Lond. Hon. Secretaries: J. H. MAIDEN, F.1:s. | G. H. KNIBBS, F.R.a.s. Members of Council: C. 0. BURGE, M. Inst. C.E. H. C. RUSSELL, B.a., C.M.G., F.B.S. C. W. DARLEY, M. Inst. C.E. HENRY G. SMITH, r.c.s. F. B. GUTHRIE, F.c.s. Pror. ANDERSON STUART, u.p. H. A. LENEHAN, F.R.a.s. J. STUART THOM F. H. QUAIFE, m.a., m.p. F. TIDSWELL, m.8., v.p.H. Assistant Secretary: W. H. WEBB. FORM OF BEQUEST. ~ £ bequeath the sum of £ to the Roya Society oF New Soutu WaAtEs, Incorporated by Act of the Parliament of New South Wales in 1881, and I declare that the receipt of the Treasurer for the time being of the said Corporation shall be an effectual discharge for the said Bequest, which I direct to be paid within calendar months after my decease, without any reduction whatsoever, whether on account of Legacy Duty thereon or otherwise, out of such part of my estate as may be lawfully applied for that purpose. [ Those persons, who feel disposed to benefit the Royal Society sf New South Wales by Legacies, are recommended to instruct their Solicitors to adopt the abore Form of Bequest. | VAVAVAVAVAVATAVAVAUACAVAUAVATAVATAVAVALAVAUAUALAUAUACATACALA| PAVAVAVIAVIVAVLVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVANVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAYAVAYAYAYAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAYAVAYAVAVATATATATAUAAVATAVAYATAVAVALAVATAVA AY AVAVATATALALTAVATAUAYIVIVIVIVITIVIVIVIVIVIVIVAVIVIVIVIVITA Aa A NOTICE. Members are particularly requested to communicate any change of address to the Hon. Secretaries, for which purpose this slip is inserted. Corrected Address: Peeressevesese COO S TOS OSEE EHTEL SCH EOE CH OOD FELT FE OSE OOH OES OOH EEE Hee HSH HHH OHHHOH FHF THOTT SHH THHOET EOD Titles, TAT et ee oa a! cou Srarat tls aihlottinsWinidiclalovelete eee oesesesesereore @ceceoso Soot cee 1D ey ere ee ee To the Hon. Secretaries, The Royal Society of N. 8. Wales, 5 Elizabeth Street, Sydney. LIST OF THE MEMBERS OF THE The Hopal Society of Few Sout) Wales. P Members who have contributed papers which have been published in the Society’s Transactions or Journal; papers published in the Transactions of the Philosophical Society are also included. The numerals indicate the number of such contributions. ne pte Members. ected. 1877 Abbott, The Hon. Sir Joseph Palmer, Knt., K.c.M.G., M.L.A., © 1877 | PS 1864 1895 1890 | P2 1885 1898 1877 1896 1899 1878 1894 | P7 1900 1894: 1895 | P4 1896 1895 | P7 1894. 1898 1877 1876 1900 1869' P2 Speaker of the Legislative Assembly, Castlereagh-street. Abbott, W. E,, ‘Abbotsford,’ Wingen. Adams, P. F., ‘ Casula,, Liverpool. Adams, J. H. M., Atheneum Club, p.r. Broughton Cottage, St. James’ Road Waverley. Allan, Percy, M. Inst. C.E., Assoc. M. Am. Soc. C.E., Engineer-in-Charge of Bridge Design, Public Works Department, Sydney. Allworth, Joseph Witter, Chief Surveyor, Lands Department, Sydney. Alexander, Frank Lee, c/o Messrs. Goodlet and Smith Ld., Cement Works, Granville. Anderson, H.C. L., u.a., Principal Librarian, Public Library of N.S. Wales, 161 Macquarie-street. _Archer, Samuel, B.z. Roy. Univ. Irel., Resident Engineer, Roads and Bridges Office, Mudgee. Atkinson, A. A., Chief Inspector of Collieries, Department of Mines, Sydney. Backhouse, Alfred P., u.a., District Court Judge, ‘Melita,’ Elizabeth Bay. Baker, Richard Thomas, F.u.s.,Curator, Technological Museum. Bale, Ernest, c.z., Public Works Department. {Balsille, George, Sandymount, Dunedin, New Zealand. Bancroft, T. L., u.s. Edin., Deception Bay, via Burpengary, Brisbane, Queensland. Barff, H. E., w.a., Registrar, Sydney University. Barraclough, S. H., B.E., M.M.E., Assoc. M. Inst.c.E., Mem. Soe. Promotion Eng. Education, Lecturer in Engineering, Sydney University; p.r. ‘Lansdowne,’ 30 Bayswater Road, Darlinghurst. Baxter, William Howe, Chief Surveyor Existing Lines Office, Railway Department; p.r. ‘Hawerby,’ Vernon-street, Strathfield. Beale, Charles Griffia, 109 Pitt-street and Warrigal Club. Belfield, Algernon H., ‘ Eversleigh,’ Dumaresq. Benbow, Clement A., 48 College-street. Bender, Ferdinand, Accountant and Auditor, 21 Elizabeth- street, North. Bensusan, 8. L., Equitable Building, George-st., Box 411 G.P.O. (xii.) Elected 1895 | Bensusan, A. J., A.B.S.u., F.c.s., Laboratory, 12 O’Connell-st. 1888 qBlaxland, Walter, F.R.c.s. Hng., L.R.c.P. Lond., Mount Barker, South Australia. 1893 Blomfield, Charles E., B.c.z. Melb., Inquiry Office, Public Works. Department, Sydney. 1898 Blunno, Michele, Government Viticultural Expert, Depart-. ment of Agriculture, Sydney. 1879 tBond, Albert, 131 Bell’s Chambers, Pitt-street. 1895 | P1| Boultbee, James W., Superintendent of Public Watering ' Places and Artesian Boring, Department of Lands. 1891 Bowman, Archer &., c.z., ‘ Keadue,’ Elizabeth Bay Road. 1893 Bowman, John, Assoc. M. Inst.C.E., Tramway Construction Branch,. Public Works Department. 1893 Bowman, Reginald, M.8. etch. M. Hdin., 261 Elizabeth-street and George-street, Parramatta. 1876 Brady, Andrew John, Lic. K. & Q. Coll. Phys. Irel., Lic. R. Coll. Sur. Irel.,. 3 Lyons’ Terrace, Hyde Park. 1891 Brennand, Henry J. W., B.a., m.B. ch.M. Syd. Univ., 203 Mac-. quarie-street. 1878 tBrooks, Joseph, F.R G.S., F.R.A.S., ‘Hope Bank,’ Nelson-street,,. Woollahra. 1896 Brown, Alexander, Newcastle. 1876 | Brown, Henry Joseph, Solicitor, Newcastle. 1891 Bruce, John Leck, Technical College, Sydney. 1898 Burfitt, W. Fitzmaurice, M.B., ch.m. Syd., B.A.; B.Sc. 311 Glebe: Road, Glebe Point. 1891 | P4| Burge, Charles Ormsby, ™.tust.c.c, Principal Assistant En- gineer, Railway Construction, ‘Fitz Johns,’ Alfred-street: N., North Sydney. 1890 Burne, Dr. Alfred, Dentist, 1 Lyons’ Terrace, Liverpool-st. 1880 Bush, Thomas James, ™. Inst.c.E., Engineer’s Office, Australian. Gas-Light Company, 163 Kent-street. 1876 Cadell, Alfred, Coramba, via South Grafton. 1897 Callender, James Ormiston, Consulting Electrical Engineer,. 20 St. James’ Court, Buckingham Gate, London S.W. 1894 Cameron, Alex. Mackenzie, Walgett. 1899 Cameron, R. B., Secretary A.M.P. Society, 87 Pitt-street. 1879 Campbell, Rev. Joseph, m.a., F.G.S., F.c.s., Te Aroha, Auckland,. New Zealand. 1900 Canty, M., ‘ Rosemont,’ 13 York-street. Wynyard Square. 1876 Cape, Alfred J., u.a. Syd,, ‘ Karoola,’ Edgecliffe Road. 1897 Cardew, John Haydon, Assoc. M, Inst. C.E., L.8., 75 Pitt-street. 1894 | P 2! Carleton, Henry R.., ™. Inst. c.z,, ‘Tarcoola,’ Nelson-st. Woollahra... 1891 Carment, David, F.1.a. Gt. Brit. & Irel., ¥.F.A. Scot., Australian. Mutual Provident Society, 87 Pitt-street. 1879 | P1|{Chard, J. S., Licensed Surveyor, Armidale. 1878 Chisholm, Edwin, m.R.c.s. Eng., u.s.a. Lond., 82 Darlinghurst. Road. 1885 Chisholm, William, m.p. Lond., 1389 Macquarie-street, North. ‘ 1888 Clubbe, C. P. B., u.r.c Pp. Lond., u.R.c.8. Eng., 195 Macquarie-st. 1896 Cook, W. E., m.c.z. Melb. Univ., M. Inst.c.z., District Engineer, Water and Sewerage Department, North Sydney. lected 11876 11893 1878 1876 1855 1882 1881 1892 1880 1886 _ 1869 1870 1899 1891 1875 1890 1876 1877 1886 1892 1878 1885 1877 1899 1894. 1875 1880 1879 PL Pd P3 P 14 PI P2 Pi P12 (xiii. ) Codrington, John Frederick, mu.r.c.s. Eng., L.R.c.P. Lond., L.R C.P. Edin , ‘ Holmsdale, Chatswood. Cohen, Algernon A., m.B., M.D. Aberd., M.R.C.S. Hng., 61 Dar- linghurst Road. Colquhoun, George, Crown Solicitor, ‘Rossdhu,’ Belmore Road, Hurstville. Colyer, J. U. G., Australian Gas-Light Co., 163 Kent-street. Comrie, James, ‘ Northfield,’ Kurrajong Heights, via Richmond. Cornwell, Samuel, Australian Brewery, Bourke-st., Waterloo. Coutie, W. H., m.8.,ch.B., Univ. Melb., ‘Warminster,’ Canter- bury Road, Petersham. Cowdery, George R., Assoc. M. Inst.c.E, Engineer for Tramways, Public Works Buildings, Phillip-street p.r. ‘Glencoe,’ Torrington Road, Strathfield. Cox, The Hon. George Henry, u.u.c.. Mudgee: and Warrigal Club, 145 Macquarie-street. Crago, W.H., m.R.0.s. Eng., u.R.c.P. Lond., 16 College-street, Hyde Park. Creed, The Hon. J. Mildred, m.tu.c., u.R.c.s. Eng., u.R.c.P. Hdin., 195 Elizabeth-street. Croudace, Thomas, Lambton. Cullen, Hon. W. P., m.A., Lu.p., M.u.c., Barrister-at-Law, ‘Tregoyd,’ Mosman. Curran, Rev. J. Milne, Lecturer in Geology, Technical College, Sydney. Dangar, Fred. H., c/o Messrs. Dangar, Gedye, & Co., Mer- cantile Bank Chambers, Margaret-street. Dare, Henry Harvey, M.£., Assoc. M. Inst.c.E., Roads and Bridges Branch, Public Works Department. ; Darley, Cecil West, M. mst.c.z, c/o The Agent General, West- minster Chambers, 9 Victoria-street, London, S.W. Darley, The Hon. Sir Frederick, kK c.m.c., B.A., Chief Justice, Supreme Court. David, T. W. Edgeworth, B.A.,F.R.S.,F.G.S., Professor of Geology and Physical Geography, Sydney University, Glebe. Vice- President. Davis, Joseph, M.tst.ceu, Under Secretary, Department of Public Works. Dean, Alexander, j.p. 42 Castlereagh-street, Box 409 G.P.O. Deane, Henry, ™.4., M. Inst. c.E., Engineer-in-Chief for Railways, Railway Construction Branch, Public Works Department, p.r. ‘Blanerne,’ Wybalena Road, Hunter’s Hill. Vice- President. Deck, John Feild, m.p Univ. St. And., u.R.c.p. Lond., M.R.C.S., Eng., 203 Macquarie-street ; p.r. Ashfield. De Coque, J. V., Public Works Department, Sydney. Dick, James Adam, B.A. Syd., M.D., o.m. Edin., ‘Catfoss,’ Belmore Road, Randwick. Dixon, W. A., F.c.s., Fellow of the Institute of Chemistry of Great Britain and Ireland. 97 Pitt-street. Dixson, Thomas, u.z. Edin., Mast. Surg Edin., 281 Elizabeth- street, Hyde Park. Docker, Wilfred L., ‘ Nyrambla,’ Darlinghurst Road. (xiv. ) Elected 1876 Docker, Ernest B., u.a. Syd., District Court Judge, ‘ Eltham,” Edgecliffe Road. 1889 Duckworth, A., A.M.P. Society, 87 Pitt-st.; p.r. ‘ Trentham,” Woollahra. 1873 P1| Du Faur, E., F.x.c.s., Exchange Buildings, Pitt-street. 1894. Edgell, Robert Gordon, Roads and Bridges Office, Wollombi. 1896 Edwards, George Rixon, Resident Engineer, Roads and Bridges Branch, Crookwell. 1879 | P4| Etheridge, Robert, Junr., J.p., Curator, Australian Museum ;. p-r. 21 Roslyn-street, Darlinghurst. 1876 Evans, George, Fitz Evan Chambers, Castlereagh-street. 1892 Everett, W. Frank, Roads and Bridges Office, Muswellbrook. 1896 Fairfax, Charles Burton, S. M. Herald Office, Hunter-street. 1877 {Fairfax, Edward Ross, S. M. Herald Office, Hunter-street. 1896 Fairfax, Geoffrey E., 8. M. Herald Office, Hunter-street. 1868 Fairfax, Sir James R., Knt., S. M. Herald Office, Hunter-st. 1887 Faithfull, R. L., m.p. New York (Coll. Phys. & Surg.) L.B.c.P., L.s.A. Lond., 18 Wylde-street. 1889 Farr, Joshua J., J.p., ‘Cora Lynn,’ Addison Rd., Marrickville. 1897 Fell, David, c.a.a., Public Accountant, Equitable Building,. George-street. 1881 Fiaschi, Thos., ™.D., M.ch., Univ. Pisa, 149 Macquarie-street. 1891 Firth, Thomas Rhodes, M. Inst. c.F., ‘Glenevin,’ Arncliffe. 1891 Fitzgerald, Robert D., c.z., Roads and Bridges Branch, Department of Public Works, Sydney; p.r. Alexandra-st.,. Hunter’s Hill. 1888 Fitzhardinge, Grantly Hyde, m.a. Syd., District Court Judge, ‘Red Hill,’ Beecroft, Northern Line. 1894 Fitz Nead, A. Churchill, Lands Department, Lismore. 1900 {Flashman, James Froude, m.v. Syd., ‘Totnes, Temple-street, Petersham. 1879 {Foreman, Joseph, m.R.c.s. Hng., u.B.c.P. Edin., 141 Macquarie- street. 1881 Foster, The Hon. W. J., x.c., ‘Thurnby,’ Enmore Road, Newtown. 1881 Furber, T. F., Surveyor General’s Office, p.r. ‘Tennyson House,” 145 Victoria-street. 1899 | P1| Garran, Hon. A., M.A., LL.D., M.L.C., ‘ Roanoke,’ Roslyn Avenue, Darlinghurst. 1899 Garran, R. R., M.a., c.u.a., Wigram Chambers, Phillip-street. 1876 George, W. R., 318 George-street. 1879 Gerard, Francis, ‘ Clandulla,’ Goulburn. 1896 Gibson, Frederick William, District Court, Judge ‘ Grasmere,” Stanmore Road. 1891 Gill, Robert J., Public Works Department, Moruya. 1876 | P 4! Gipps, F. B., c.u., ‘Elmly,’ Mordialloc, Victoria. Elected 1883 1859 1896 1897 1886 1891 1899 1898 1877 1891 1900 1880 1899 1892 1887 1882 1881 1877 1899 1884. 1899 1900 1890 1891 1900 1884 1899 1899 1891 1876 1896 1892 Pi Pl (xv.) Goode, W. H., ma., M.D., ch.M., Diplomate in State Medicine: Dub.; Surgeon Royal Navy; Corres. Mem. Royal Dublin Society; Mem. Brit. Med. Assoc.; Lecturer on Medical Jurisprudence, University of Sydney, 159 Macquarie-st. Goodlet, John H., ‘Canterbury House,’ Ashfield. Gollin, Walter J., ‘Winslow,’ Darling Point. Gould, Hon. Albert John, u.u.c¢., J.p., Holt’s Cambers, 121 Pitt-street; p.r. ‘Eynesbury,’ Edgecliff. Graham, Sir James, Knt., m.a., M.D., M.B., C.M. Hdin., M.L.A.,. Mayor of Sydney, 183 Liverpool-street. Grimshaw, James Walter, M. Inst.C.E., M. 1. Mech. E., &., Australian Club, Sydney. Gummow, Frank M., M.¢.E., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E,, Vickery’s Cham-- bers, 82 Pitt- street. Gurney, Elliott Henry, ‘ Glenavon,’ Albert- st, Petersham. Gurney, T. T., u.a. Cantab., Professor of Mathematics, Sydney University; prs Clavering,’ French’s Forest Road, Manly. Guthrie, Frederick B., ¥F.c.s., Department of Agriculture,. Sydney; p.r. ‘ Westella,’ Wonga-street, Burwood. Hadley, Arthur, F.c.s., Standard Brewery, Sydney. Halligan, Gerald H., r.a.s., ‘ Riversleigh,’ Hunter’s Hill. Halloran, A., B.A., LL B., 20 Castlereagh-street. Halloran, Henry Ferdinand, L.s., Scott’s Chambers, 94 Pitt-st.. Hamlet, William M., F.c.s., F.1.c., Member of the Society of Public Analysts; Government Analyst, Health Depart- ment, Macquarie-street North. Vice-President. Hankins, George Thomas, m.R.c.s. Eng., ‘St. Ronans,’ Allison Road, Randwick. tHarris, John, ‘ Bulwarra,’ Jones-street, Ultimo. P 18\{Hargrave, Lawrence, J.p., 44 Roslyn Gardens, City. Harper, H. W., Assoc. M, Inst.c.E, Equitable Building, George-st. Haswell, William Aitcheson, m.A., D.Sc, F.R.8., Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy, University, Sydney; p-r. ‘Mimihau,’ Woollahra Point. Hawker, Herbert, Demonstrator in Physiology, University of Sydney; p.r. 1 Northumberland Avenue, Petersham. Hawkins, W. E., Solicitor, 88 Pitt-street. Haycroft, James Isaac, m.z. Queen’s Univ. Irel., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E. Assoc, M. Can. Soc. C.E., Assoc. M, Am. Soc, C.E., M.M. & C.E., M. Inst. C.E. I., L.S. ‘ Fontenoy, Ocean-street, Woollahra. Hedley, Charles, F.u.s., Assistant in Zoology, Australian: Museum, Sydney. Helms, Richard, Experimentalist, Department of Agriculture. Henson, Joshua B., c.z., Hunter District Water Supply and Sewerage Board, Newcastle. Henderson, J., City Bank of Sydney, Pitt-street. Henderson, S., m.A., Assoc. M. Inst.c.E., Equitable Building, George- street. Hickson, Robert R. P., mM. Inst.c.c., Chairman, Harbour Trust, Sydney ; p.r. ‘The Pines,’ Bondi. Hirst, George D., 377 George-street. Hinder, Henry Critchley, u.B.,c.m. Syd., Elizabeth-st., Ashfield. Hodgson, Charles George, 157 Macquarie-street. Elected (xvi.) 1891 | P2| Houghton, Thos. Harry, M, Inst. C.E., M. I. Mech. E., 63 Pitt-street. 1879 1891 1877 1894: 1891 1900 1884 1887 Pt P2 1884. | 1867 1876 1875 1878 1883 1873 1877 1894 1887 1898 1892 1891 1874. 1896 1892 1878 1881 1877 1878 P2 P3 P13 ‘Houison, Andrew, 8.4., w.B., ¢.M. Edin., 47 Phillip-street. How, William F., m. mst.c.b., M. I. Mech. E, Wh. Sc, Mutual Life Buildings, George-street. Hume, J. K., ‘ Beulah, Campbelltown. Hunt, Henry A., F.R. Met. soc., Second Meteorological Assistant, Sydney Observatory. Jamieson, Sydney, B.A., M.B., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., 198 Liverpool- street, Hyde Park. ee Jarman, Arthur, a.x.s.m., Demonstrator, University of Sydney. Jenkins, Edward Johnstone, u.a., M.D. Oxon., M.R.C.P., M.B.C.S., L.s.A. Lond., 218 Macquarie-street, North. ’ Jones, George Mander, m.n.c.s. Eng., L.R.c.P. Lond., * Viwa,’ Burlington Road, Homebush. Jones, Llewellyn Charles Russell, Solicitor, Sydney Chambers, 130 Pitt-street. Jones, P. Sydney, u.p. Lond., F.R.c.s. Eng., 16 College-street, Hyde Park; p.r. ‘ Llandilo,’ BouJevard, Strathfield. Jones, Richard Theophilus, u.p. Syd., u.R.c.p. Hdin., ‘Cader Idris,’ Ashfield. Josephson, J. Percy, Assoc. M. Inst. c.E., ‘Moppity,’ George-street, Dulwich Hill. Joubert, Numa, Hunter’s Hill. Kater, The Hon. H. E., 3.p., u.ut.c., Australian Club. Keele, Thomas William, ™. Inst. c.E., Harbours and Rivers Branch Public Works Department. Keep, John, Broughton Hall, Leichhardt. Kelly, Walter MacDonnell, L.R.c.P., u.R.¢.8. Hdin., L.F.P.S. Glas., 265 Elizabeth-street. Kent, Harry C., u.a., Bell’s Chambers, 129 Pitt-street. Kerry, Charles H., J.p., 310 George-street. ; Kiddle, Hugh Charles, F. R. Met. Soc., Public School, Seven Oaks, Smithtown, Macleay River. King, Christopher Watkins, Assoc. M. Inst. CE, LS, Assistant Engineer, Harbours and Rivers Department, Newcastle. King, The Hon. Phillip G., u.u.c., ‘ Banksia,’ William-street, Double Bay. King, Kelso, 120 Pitt-street. Kirkcaldie, David, Commissioner, New South Wales Govern- ment Railways, Sydney. Knaggs, Samuel T., m.p. Aberdeen, ¥F.R.c.S. Irel., 5 Lyons’ Terrace, Hyde Park. Knibbs, G. H., r.n.a.s., Lecturer in Surveying, University of Sydney; p.r. ‘Avoca House,’ Denison Road, Petersham. Hon. Secretary. ’ Knox, Edward W., ‘Rona,’ Bellevue Hill, Rose Bay. Kyngdon, F. B., F.R.u.s., Lond., Deanery Cottage, Bowral. lected 1874 1883 1901 1872 |P 50 . 1894: 1900 1900 P6 (xvii.) Lenehan, Henry Alfred, r.nz.a.s., Sydney Observatory. Lingen, J. T., m.a. Cantab., 167 Phillip-street. Little, Robert, The Hermitage,’ Double Bay. Liversidge, Archibald, m.a. Cantab., LL.D., F.R.S., Hon. F.R.s. Edin.; Assoc. Roy. Sch. Mines, Lond.; F.C.S8., F.G.S., F.R.G.S.; Fel. Inst. Chem. of Gt. Brit. and Irel.; Hon. Fel. Roy. Historical Soc. Lond.; Mem. Phy. Soc., Lond.; Mineral- ogical Society, Lond; Edin. Geol. Soc.; Mineralogical Society, France; Corr. Mem. Edin. Geol. Soc.; New York Acad. of Sciences; Roy. Soc., Tas.; Roy. Soc., Queensland; Senckenberg Institute, Frankfurt ; Society d’ Acclimat., Mauritius; Foreign Corr. Indiana Acad. of Sciences; Hon. Mem. Roy. Soc., Vict.; N. Z. Institute; K. Leop. Carol. Acad., Halle a/s; Professor of Chemistry in the University of Sydney, The University, Glebe; p.r. ‘The Octagon,’ St. Mark’s Road, Darling Point. President. Low, Hamilton, ‘ Lillington,’ Cambridge-street, Stanmore. MacCarthy, Charles W., m.p., F.R.c.S. Ivel.; 223 Elizabeth- street, Hyde Park. MacCormick, Alexander, m.D., ¢.m. Edin., M.R.c.s. Eng., 125 Macquarie-street, North. MacCulloch, Stanhope H., u.s., c.m. Hdin., 24 College-street. M‘Cutcheon, John Warner, Assayer to the Sydney Branch of the Royal Mint. McDonagh, John M., B.A, M.D., u.R.c.P. Lond., F.R.C.S. frel., 173 Macquarie-street. North. MacDonald, C. A., c.£., 63 Pitt-street. , MacDonald, Ebenezer, 3.P., c/o Perpetual Trustee Co. Ld., 2 Spring-street. MacDonnell, William J., F.n.a.s., 1!44 Pitt-street. McDouall, Herbert Chrichton, m.r.c.s. Eng., t.R.c Pp. Lond., D.e.H. Camb., Hospital for Insane, Callan Park, Rozelle. McKay, G. A., Chief Mining Surveyor, Department of Mines, Sydney. McKay, R. T., t.s., Sewerage Construction Branch, Public Works Department. McKay, William J. Stewart, B.Sc. M.B., Ch.M., Cambridge-street, Stanmore. Mackellar, The Hon. Charles Kinnaird, M.L.c., M.B., c.M. Glas., Equitable Building, George-street. Mackenzie, Rev. P. F., The Manse, Johnston-st., Annandale. M‘Kinney, Hugh Giffin, u.z. Roy. Univ. Irel., m. mst. c.£., § Dilk- husha,’ Fuller’s Road, Chatswood, MacLaurin, The Hon. Henry Norman, M.L.¢., M.A.. M.D. Edin., L.R.C.8. Hdin., LL.D. Univ. St. Andrews, 155 Macquarie-st. McMillan, Sir William, ‘ Logan Brae,’ Waverley. MacTaggart, A. H, p.p.s., Phil. U.S.A., King and Phillip-sts. MacTaggart, J. N. C., B.z. Syd., 16 Lugar-street, Waverley. 1882 | P1| Madsen, Hans. F., ‘ Hesselmed House,’ Queen-st., Newtown. 1883 | P6| Maiden, J. Henry, s.p., F.u.s, Corr. Memb. Pharm. Soc. Gt. Brit.; of the National Agric. Soc., Chili; Hon. Memb. Royal Netherlands Soc. (Haarlem); of the Philadelphia Coll. of Pharmacy; of the Royal Soc. of 8.A.; of the Mueller Botanic Soc. of W.A.&c.; Government Botanist and Director, Botanic Gardens, Sydney. Hon. Secretary. Elected 1880 1877 1879 1869 1897 1875 1888 1896 1887 1873 1882 1889 1856 1879 1875 1877 1882 1877 1879 1887 1898 1876 1893 1891 1873 1893 1888 1896 1875 (xviil.) P1| Manfred, Edmund C., Montague-street, Goulburn. P 10 P5 P3 Pry Pet Mann, John F., ‘Kerepunu,’ Neutral Bay. Manning, Frederic Norton, u.p. Univ. St. And., M.R.¢.s. Eng., L.s.A. Lond., Australian Club. Mansfield, G. Allen, Martin Chambers, Moore-street. Marden, John, B.A., M.A., LL.B., Univ. Melb., uu.p. Univ. Syd., Principal, Presbyterian Ladies’ College, Sydney. Mathews, Robert Hamilton, L.s., Assoc. Mem. Soc. d’Anthrop. de Paris; Cor. Mem. Anthrop. Soc., Washington, U.S.A.; Cor. Mem, Roy. Geog. Soc. Aust., Queensland ; ‘ Carcuron,’ Hassall-street, Parramatta. 39 Megginson, A. M., m.B., c.m. Edin,, 147 Hlizabeth-street. Merfield, Charles J., F.R.A.s., Railway Construction Branch,. Public Works Department; p.r. ‘ Branville,’ Green Bank- street, Marrickville. Miles, George E., u.x.c.P. Lond, M.x.c.8s. Eng., The Hospital, Rydalmere, Near Parramatta. Milford, F., m.p. Heidelberg, u.R.¢.S. Eng., 231 Elizabeth-st. Milson, James, ‘ Elamang,’ North Shore. Mingaye, John C. H., F.c.s., F.1.c., Assayer and Analyst to the Department of Mines, Government Metallurgical Works, Clyde; p.r. Campbell-street, Parramatta. Moore, Charles, r.us., Australian Club; p.r. 6 Queen-street, Woollahra. Vice-President. Moore, Frederick H., Illawarra Coal Co., Gresham-street. Moir, James, 58 Margaret-street. Morris, William, Fel. Fac. Phys. and Surg. Glas., F.R.M.s. Lond., c/o Mrs. C. H. Humphrey, ‘Luscombe,’ Livingstone-- street, Burwood. Moss, Sydney, ‘ Kaloola,’ Kiribilli Point, North Shore. tMullens, Josiah, F.r.a.s., ‘Tenilba,’ Burwood. Mullins, John Francis Lane, u.a. Syd,, ‘ Killountan,’ Challis. Avenue, Pott’s Point. Munro, William John, M.B., c.mM., M.D. Edin., u.R.c.s. Eng., 213 Macquarie-street; p.r. Forest House, 182 Pyrmont Bridge Road, Forest Lodge. Murray, Lee, u.c.£. Melb., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., 16 O’Connell-street. Myles, Charles Henry, ‘ Dingadee,’ Burwood. Nangle, James, Architect, Australia-street, Newtown. tNoble, Edwald George, 21 Norfolk-street, Paddington. Norton, The Hon. James, M.L.c., LL.D, Solicitor, 2 O’Connell-. street; p.r. ‘ Ecclesbourne,’ Double Bay. Noyes, Edward, c..,c/o Messrs. Noyes Bros., 310 O’Connell-st.. O’Neill, G. Lamb, m.B., c.m. Edin., 221 Elizabeth-street. Onslow, Lt. Col. James William Macarthur, Camden Park,, Menangle. O’Reilly, W. W. J., M.D., M.ch. Q. Univ. Irel., m.n.c.s. Eng., 197 Liverpool-street. Elected 1883 | 1891 | 1879 | P5 1897/P1 1876 1899 | Pl 1900 | 1865 | P1 { 1881 | P3 a 1870 | 1893 | P1 1885, 1897. (xix.) | Osborne, Ben. M., J.P., ‘ Hopewood,’ Bowral. ‘Osborn, A F., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., Public Works Department, Cowra. Palmer, Joseph, 133 Pitt-st.; p.r. Kenneth-st., Willoughby. Paterson, Hugh, 197 Liverpool-street, Hyde Park. Pearce, W., Union Club; p.r. ‘Waiwera,’ Cecil-st., Ashfield. Pedley, Perceval R., 227 Macquarie-street. | Perkins, E. W., 122 Pitt-street. Perkins, Henry A., c/o Perpetual Trustee Co. Ld., 2 Spring-st. Petersen, T. T., Associate Sydney Institute of Public Account- ants, 85 Womerah Avenue. Pickburn, Thomas, m.pD., c.m. Aberdeen, m.R.c.s. Eng., 22 College-street. Pittman, Edward F., Assoc. RS.M. LS. Government Geologist, Department of Mines. Plummer, John, Northwood, Lane Cove River. Poate, Frederick, District Surveyor, Moree. Pockley, Thomas F. G., Commercial Bank, Singleton. Pollock, James Arthur, B.E. Roy. Univ. Ivrel, Bsc, Syd., Pro- fessor of Physics, Sydney University. Poole, William Junr., Assoc. M. Inst.C.E, 87 Pitt-street, Redfern, or Palace Hotel, Broken Hill. Pope, Roland James, B.A. Syd., M.D., C.M., F.R.C.S. Edin., Ophthalmic Surgeon, 235 Macquarie-street. Portus, A. B., Assoc. M.Inst.C.E, Superintendent of Dredges, Public Works Department. Purser, Cecil, B.A. M.B, Ch.M. Syd., ‘Valdemar,’ Boulevard, Petersham. Quaife, Frederick H., m.a, m.p., Master of Snrgery Glas., ‘ Hughenden,’ 14 Queen-street, Woollahra. Rae, J. L. C., Manager Sydney Harbour Collieries Ltd.; p.r. ‘Strathmore,’ Ewenton-street, Balmain. Ralston, J. T., Solicitor, 86 Pitt-street. tRamsay, Edward P., uu.p. Univ. St. And., F.R.s.E., F.L.S., 8 Palace-street, Petersham. Rennie, Edward H., m.a. Syd., D. Se. Lond., Professor of Chemistry, University, Adelaide. Rennie, George E., B.A. Syd., M.D. Lond., m.R.c.s. Eng., 40 College-street, Hyde Park. Renwick, The Hon. Sir Arthur, Knt., m.u.c., B.a. Syd., m.a., F.R.C.8. Edin., 295 Elizabeth-street. Roberts, W. S. de Lisle, c.z., Sewerage Branch, Public Works Department, Phillip-street. Rolleston, John C., Assoc, M. Inst. C.E., Harbours and Rivers Branch, Public Works Department. Ronaldson, James Henry, Mining Engineer, 32 Macleay-st., Pott’s Point. Elected 1892 1884, 1895 1895 1882 1894 1864: 1897 1883 1892 1892 1856 1886 1877 1890 1891 1883 1900 1882 1893 1884. 1891 1893 1874 1875 1899 1898 1886 PP tl P 65 as] = P 4 Pal P3 (xx.) Rossbach, William, Assoc. M. Inst.C.E, Chief Draftsman, Harbours and Rivers Branch, Public Works Department. Ross, Chisholm, mu.p. Syd., M.B., c.m. Edin., Hospital for the Insane, Callan Park, Rozelle. Ross, Colin John, B.Sc., B.E., Assoc. M. Inst, C.£., Borough Engineer, Town Hall, North ‘Sydney. Ross, Herbert E., Consulting Mining Engineer, Equitable Buildings, George-street. Rothe, W. H., Colonial Sugar Co., O’Connell-st., and Union Club Rowney, George Henry, Assoc. M. Inst.C.E.,, Water and Sewerage Board, Pitt-street; p.r. ‘Maryville, Ben Boyd Road, Neutral Bay. Russell, Henry C., B.a. Syd., C M.G., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.R. Met. Soc., Hon. Memb. Roy. Soc., South Australia, Government Astronomer, Sydney Observatory. Russell, Harry Ambrose, B.A., Solicitor, c/o Messrs. Sly and Russell, 379b George-street; p.r. ‘Mahuru,’ Milton-street, Ashfield. Rygate, Philip W., m.a., B.E. Syd., Assoc. M, Inst. C.E., Phoenix Chambers, 158 Pitt- street. Schmidlin, F,, 44 Elizabeth-street, Sydney. Schofield, James Alexander, F ¢.s., A.R.S.M., University, Sydney. tScott, Rev. William, m.a. Cantab., Kurrajong Heights. Scott, Walter, m.a. Oxon., Professor of Greek, University, Sydney. Selfe, Norman, M. Inst. C.E., M.I. Mech. E., Victoria Chambers, 279 George-street. Sellors, R. P., B.a. Syd., FR.A.S., Trigonometrical Branch, Lands Department. Shaw, Percy William, Assoc. M. Inst.C.E., Resident Engineer for Tramway Construction; p.r. ‘Epcombs,’ Miller-street, North Sydney. Shellshear, Walter, M. Inst.C,e., Divisional Engineer, Railway Department, Goulburn. Simpson, R. C., Demonstrator of Physics, Sydney University. Sinclair, Eric, m.p., c.m. Univ. Glas., Hospital for the Insane, Gladesville. | Sinclair, Russell, M. I. Mech. E. &. Consulting Engineer, 97 Pitt-st. Skirving, Robert Scot, u.s.. c.m. Hdin., HElizabeth-street, Hyde Park. Smail, J. M., M.Inst.C.E,, Chief Engineer, Metropolitan Board of Water Supply and Sewerage, 341 Pitt-street. Smith, Henry G., r.c.s., Technological Museum, Sydney. ‘fSmith, John McGarvie, 89 Denison-street, Woollahra. | Smith, Robert, m.a. Syd., Marlborough Chambers, 2 O’Connell street. Smith, R. Greig, MSc. Dun., B.Sc. Edin., Macleay Bacteriologist, ‘Otterburn,’ Double Bay. Smith, S. Hague, Colonial Mutual Fire Insurance Co., 78 Pitt-st. Smith, Walter Alexander, M. Inst. C.E., Roads, Bridges and Sewerage Branch, Public Works Department, N. Sydney. Elected 1896 1896 1892 1889 1879 1891 1900 1883 1892 1861 |P 19 (xxi. ) | Smyth, Selwood, Harbours and Rivers Branch, Public Works Department. Spencer, Walter, m.p. Bruz., 13 Edgeware Road, Enmore. P1| Statham, Edwyn Joseph, Assoc. M. Inst,C.E, Cumberland Heights, Parramatta. Stephen, Arthur Winbourn, 1 s., 86 Pitt-street. tStephen, The Hon. Septimus A., m.u.c., 12—14 O’Connell-st. Stilwell, A. W., Assoc. M.Inst.C.f., Public Works Depart., Sydney. Stewart, J. D., u.R.c.v.s., Government Veterinary Surgeon, Department of Mines and Agriculture; p.r. Cowper-street, Randwick. P3) Stuart, T. P. Anderson, u.p., Lu.p. Univ. Edin., Professor of P2 PS | 2a | Physiology, University of Sydney; p.r. ‘ Lincluden,’ Fairfax Road, Double Bay. Sturt, Clifton, L.R.c.P., L.R.c.S. Edin., u.F.P.s. Glas., ‘ Wistaria,’ Bulli. tTaylor, James, B.Sc, A.R.S.Mm., Adderton Road, Dundas. Teece, R., F.1.4., F.F.A., Actuary, A.M.P. Society, 87 Pitt-st. Tebbutt, John, F.k.A.s., Private Observatory, The Peninsula, Windsor, New South Wales. Thom, James Campbell, Solicitor for Railways; p.r. ‘ Camelot,’ Forest Road, Bexley. Thom, John Stuart, Solicitor, Atheneum Chambers, 11 Castle- reagh-street; p.r. Wollongong Road, Arncliffe. Thomas, F. J., Hunter River N.S.N. Co., Sussex-street. Thomson, Dugald, u.u.a., ‘ Wyreepi,’ Milson’s Point. Thompson, Joseph, 159 Brougham-street, Woolloomooloo. Thompson, John Ashburton, M.D. Bruz., D.Pp.H. Camb., M R.C.S, fing., Health Department, Macquarie-street. Thompson, Capt. A. J. Onslow, Camden Park, Menangle Thow, Sydney, Genera) Manager, The Hercules Gold and Silver Mining Co., Mount Read, 'Tasmania. Thow, William, M.Inst.C.E., M.I.Mech.E., Locomotive Department, Eveleigh. Threlfall, Richard, m.a. Cantab. Thring, Edward T., F.R.¢c.s. Eng., u.R.c.P. Lond., 225 Macquarie- street. | Tibbits, Walter Hugh, m.c.s. Eng., Dubbo. Tidswell, Frank, M.B., M.Ch., D.P.H., Health Department, Sydney. Toohey, The Hon. J. T., m.u.c., ‘ Moira,’ Burwood. Tooth, Arthur W., Kent Brewery. Trebeck, Prosper N., J.p., 2 O’Connell-street. Trebeck, P. C., F.R. Met. Soc., 2 O’Connell-street. tTucker, G. A., c/o Perpetual Trustee Co. Ld., 2 Spring-street. Turner, Basil W., A.R.S.M., F.c.s., 14 Castlereagh-street. Vause, Arthur John, m.8.,c.m. Edin.,‘ Bay View House,’ Tempe. Verde, Capitaine Felice, Ing. Cav., vid Fazio 2, Spezia, Italy. Verdon, Arthur, Australian Club. Vicars, James, M.C.E, M. Inst, C.E., City Surveyor, Adelaide. Elected 1892 1876 1898 1879 1899 1900 1891 1896 1895 1898 1877 1883 1876 1876 1897 1866 1892 1867 1881 1878 1879 1892 1877 1874 1883 1876 1878 1879 1891 1890 1873 1891 1899 rey til (xxii.) Vickery, George B., 78 Pitt-street. Voss, Houlton H., J.p., c/o Perpetual Trustee Company Ld., 2 Spring-street. Wade, Leslie A. B., c.z., Department of Public Works. Walker, H. O., Commercial Union Assurance Co., Pitt-street. tWalker, J. T., ‘ Rosemont,’ Ocean-street, Woollahra. “Wallach, Bernhard, B.E. Syd., Electrical Engineer, 53 Boyce- street, Glebe Point. Walsh, Henry Deane, B.E., T.c. Dub., M. Inst.C.E., Engineer-in- Chief, Harbour Trust, Sydney. Walsh, C. R., Prothonotary, Supreme Court. Ward, James Wenman, 1 Union Lane off George-street. Wark, William, 9 Macquarie Place; p.r. Kurrajong Heights. Warren, William Edward, B.A.,M.D.,M.Ch, Queen’s University Trel., M.D. Syd., 268 Elizabeth-street, Sydney. Warren, W. H., Wh. Sc. M.Inst.C.E. Professor of Engine University of Sydney. Watkins, John Leo, B.a. Cantab., m.a. Syd., Parlin oni Draftsman, Attorney General’s Department, 5 Richmond Terrace, Domain. Watson, C. Russell, u.R.c.s. Eng., ‘Woodbine,’ Erskineville Road, Newtown. Webb, Fredk. William, c.m.c., J.p., Clerk of the Legislative Assembly; pr. ‘ Livadia,’ Chandos-street, Ashfield. jWebster, A. S., c/o Permanent Trustee Co. of N.S. Wales Ld., 17 O’Connell-street. Webster, James Philip, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E, L.8. New Zealand, Borough Engineer, Town Hall, Marrickville. Weigall, Albert “Bythesea, B A. Oxon., M.A. Syd., Head i Sydney Grammar School, College- street. tWesley, W. H. Westgarth, G. C., Bond-street; p.r. 52 Elizabeth Bay Road. tWhitfeld, Lewis, m.a. Syd., ‘Oaklands,’ Edgecliffe Road, Edgecliffe. White, ae aes Assistant Assayer and Analyst, Dept. of Mines; ‘Quantox,’ Park Road, Auburn. tWhite, Rev. We “Mosee, A.M., LL.D., T.C.D: “White, Rev. James S., M.A., LL.D. Syd., ‘Gowrie,’ Singleton. Wilkinson, W. Gama m.D. Lond., u.R.c.P. Lond., M.R.¢.8s. Eng., 207 Macquarie-street. Williams, Percy Edward, Government Savings Bank, Sydney. Wilshire, James Thompsoa, F.L.S., F.R.H.S., J.P., ‘Coolooli,’ off Ranger’s Road, Shell Cove, Neutral Bay. Wilshire, F. R., p.m., Penrith. Wilson, Robert Archibald, m.p. Glas., Mast. Surg. Glas., 2 Booth-street, Balmain. Wilson, James T., u.s., Mast. Surg. Univ. Edin., Professor of Anatomy, University of Sydney. Wood, Harrie, J.p., 10 Bligh-street; p.r. 54 Darlinghurst Road. Wood, Percy Moore, u.R.c.P. Lond., M.R.c.8. Eng., ‘ Redcliffe,” Liverpool Road, Ashfield. Woolnough, W. G., B.Sc. Demonstrator in Geology, Sydney University. Elected xxiii.) 1876 | P11] Woolrych, F. B. W., ‘ Verner,’ Grosvenor-street, Croydon. 1872 1893 1879 1878 1875 1900 1875 1887 1875 (1875 1880 1892 1888 1894 1888 1900 1895 1886 1875 1875 1890 1879 1882 1882 1888 1898 Wright, Horatio G. A., m.R.c.s. Eng., u.s.a. Lond., 15 York-st., Wynyard Square. Hon. Treasurer. Wright, John, c.z., Toxteth-street, Glebe Point. Young, John, ‘ Kentville,’ Johnston-street, Leichhardt. Honorary MEMBERS. Limited to Thirty. M.—Recipients of the Clarke Medal. Agnew, Sir James, K.c.M.G., M.D., Royal Society of Tasmania, Hobart. Bernays, Lewis A., ¢.u.G., F.L.S., Brisbane. Crookes, Sir William, F.r.s., 7 Kensington Park Gardens, London W. Ellery, Robert L. J., F.B.8., F.R.A.S., late Government Astrono- mer of Victoria, ‘Melbourne. Foster, Sir Michael, M.pD., F.R.S., EEO: of Physiology, University of Cambridge. Gregory, The Hon. Augustus Charles, ¢.M.G., M.L.C., F.R.G.S., Brisbane. Hector, Sir James, K.C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S., Director of the Colonial Museum and Geological Survey of New Zealand, Wellington, N.Z. Hooker, Sir Joseph Dalton, K.c.S.1., M.D., C.B., F.R.S., &e. .» late Director of the Royal Gardens, Kew. Huggins, Sir William, K.c.B., D.C.L., LL.D., F.B.S., &¢., 90 Upper Tulse Hill, London, S.W. Hutton, Captain Frederick Wollaston, F.a.s., Curator, Canter- ’ bury Museum, Christchurch, New Zealand. Spencer, W. Baldwin, m.a., Professor of Biology, University of Melbourne. Tate, Ralph, F.a.s., F.L.S., Professor of Natural Science, University, Adelaide, South Australia. Thiselton-Dyer, Sir William ‘Turner, K.C.M.G., C.I.E., M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S., F.u.S., Director, Royal Gardens, Kew. Wallace, Alfred Russel, p.c.t. Oxon., Lu.D. Dublin, F.R.S., Parkstone, Dorset. OBITUARY. 1900. Corresponding Member. Marcou, Professor Jules. [Died 17 April, 1898. | Ordinary Members. Belisario, Dr. John. Knox, Sir Edward. Neill, Dr. L. E. F. Shepard, A. D. Shewen, Dr. Alfred. Steel, Dr. John, White, Hon. R. H. D. Wildridge, John. (xxiv.) AWARDS OF THE CLARKE MEDAL. Established in memory of THE LATE Revo. W. B. CLARKE, m.a., F.R.s., F.G.8s., &C., Vice-President from 1866 to 1878. To be awarded from time to time for meritorious contributions to the Geology, Mineralogy, or Natural History of Australia. 1878 Professor Sir Richard Owen. k.c.B., F.R.S., Hampton Court. 1879 George Bentham, c.m.G., F.R.s., The Royal Gardens, Kew. 1880 Professor Huxley, r.R.s., The Royal School of Mines, London, 4 Marlborough Place, Abbey Road, N.W. 1881 Professor F. M‘Coy, F.R.s., F.a.s., The University of Melbourne. 1882 Professor James Dwight Dana, tu.p., Yale College, New Haven, Conn., United States of America. 1883 Baron Ferdinand von Mueller, K.c.M.G , M.D., PH.D., F.R.S., F.L.S8.> Government Botanist, Melbourne. 1884 Alfred R. C. Selwyn, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Director of the Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa. 1885 Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker, k.c.s.1., ¢.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., &¢., late Director of the Royal Gardens, Kew. 1886 Professor L. G. De Koninck, u.p., University of Liége, Belgium. 1887 Sir James Hector, K.c.u.G., M.D,, F.R.S., Director of the Geological Survey of New Zealand, Wellington, N.Z. 1888 Rev. Julian H. Tenison-Woods, F.a.s., F.L.s., Sydney. 1889 Robert Lewis John Ellery, F.R.s., F.R.A.s., Government Astrono- mer of Victoria, Melbourne. 1890 George Bennett, u.p. Univ. Glas., ¥.R.c.s. Eng., F.L.S., F.Z.8., William j Street, Sydney. 1891 Captain Frederick Wollaston Hutton, F.R.s., r.a.s., Curator, Can- terbury Museum, Christchurch, New Zealand. ~ ~ 1892 Sir William Turner Thiselton Dyer, K.c.M.G.,C.1.E.,M.A., B.S¢., F.R.S.5 F.L.S., Director, Royal Gardens, Kew. 1893 Professor Ralph Tate, F.u.s., F.a4.s., University, Adelaide, S.A. 1895 Robert Logan Jack, F.G.s., F.R.G.S.,Government Geologist, Brisbane, Queensland. 1895 Robert Etheridge, Junr., Government Paleontologist, Curator of the Austrahan Museum, Sydney. 1896 Hon. Augustus Charles Gregory, ¢.M.G., M.L.C., F.R.G.S., Brisbane. 1900 Sir John Murray, Challenger Lodge, Wardie, Edinburgh. AWARDS OF THE SOCIETY’S MEDAL AND MONEY PRIZE. The Royal Society of New South Wales offers its Medal and Money Prize for the best communication (provided it be of sufficient merit) containing the results of original research or observation upon various subjects published annually. Money Prize of £25. 1882 John Fraser, B.a., West Maitland, for paper on ‘ The Aborigines of New South Wales.’ 1882 Andrew Ross, m.p., Molong, for paper on the ‘ Influence of the Australian climate and pastures upon the growth of wool.’ 1884 1886 1887 1888 1889 1889 1891 1892 1894 1894 1895 1896 (xxv) The Society’s Bronze Medal and £25. W. E. Abbott, Wingen, for paper on ‘ Water supply in the Interior of New South Wales.’ S. H. Cox, F.a.s., F.c.s., Sydney, for paper on ‘The Tin deposits of New South Wales. Jonathan Seaver, F.a.s., Sydney, for paper on ‘ Origin and mode of occurrence of gold-bearing veins and of the associated Minerals. Rev. J. E. Tenison- Woods, F.a.s., F.L.S., Sydney, for paper on ‘ The Anatomy and Life-history of Mollusca peculiar to Australia.’ Thomas Whitelegge, F.R.m.s., Syduey, for ‘ List of the Marine and Fresh-water Invertebrate Fauna of Port Jackson and Neigh- bourhood. Rev. John Mathew, m.a., Coburg, Victoria, for paper on ‘The Australian Aborigines. Rev. J. Milne Curran. F.G.s., Sydney, for paper on ‘The Microscopic Structure of Australian Rocks.’ Alexander G. Hamilton, Public School, Mount Kembla, for paper on ‘The effect which settlement in Australia has produced upon Indigenous Vegetation.’ J. V. De Coque, Sydney, for paper on the ‘ Timbers of New South Wales.’ R. H. Mathews, t.s., Parramatta, for paper on ‘The Aboriginal Rock Carvings and Paintings in New South Wales. C. J. Martin, Bsc, MB. Lond, Sydney, for paper on ‘The physio- logical action of the venom of the Australian black snake (Pseudechis porphyriacus). Rev. J. Milne Curran, Sydney, for paper on “ The occurrence of Precious Stones in New South Wales, with a description of the Deposits in which they are found.” ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. By Witui1am M. HAMLET, F.1.C., F.C.S., Government Analyst. [ Delivered to the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, May 2, 1900. } “The fragmentary produce of much toil, In a dim heap, fact and surmise together Confusedly massed as when acquired. Paracelsus. The conception of the world, as a great kosmos or order, is the primary condition of human progress. In the industrial arts, in the rules of health, the methods of healing, the prepara- tion of food, in morals, in politics every advance is an application of past experience to new circumstances, in accordance with an observed order of Nature. Philosophy consists in the conscious recognition of this method, and in the systematic use of it for the complete guidance of life. Hierokles. The honour you conferred upon me in electing me as your President, brings with it its own obligations and the consciousness of the inadequacy of any efforts of mine to fulfil them in a manner worthy of the Royal Society. There comes also the important question as to what rightly constitutes the subject-matter of the Presidential Address: whether it should be a retrospect of the scientific work of the year, an announcement of something new in science, a history of science brought to date, a discussion of some “burning question” or merely a dissertation on some particular subject passing in the mind of the President. At the outset I frankly confess my inability to satisfy you with some of these good things, and I fall back upon the latter course and proceed to unburden myself of some thoughts that have come, unbidden perhaps, to my mind during the year. Obviously the doings of the Society during the period demands first attention, therefore, in common with the A—May 2, 1900. — practice of my predecessors, I address you on the status and con- 2 WILLIAM M. HAMLET. dition of the Society, and afterwards discuss certain topics that I think will not be without interest to you. Roll of members.—The number of members on the roll on the 30th April, 1899, was three hundred and fifty-seven. Thirty-two new members have been elected during the past year and four names restored to the roll, we have however lost by death six ordinary and two Honorary members, and thirteen by resignation. There is thus left a total of three hundred and seventy-four on April 30th, 1900. Obituary.—The following is a list of members who have died during the year 1899 :— | Honorary Members - Elected 1895, Bunsen, Professor Robert Wilhelm. 1875, M’Coy, Sir Frederick. Ordinary Members. — 1886, Collingwood, Dr. David. 1896, Elwell, P. B. 1887, MacAllister, Dr. J. F. 1878, Maitland, Duncan Mearns. 1859, Watt, Charles. 1878, Wilkinson, Rev. S. Mr. CHartes Watt left England in the Sydney in 1854—the first steamer that started for Australia, but after several attempts in commencing the voyage, put back and eventually came out in a sailing ship. On his arrival in the mother colony, he became interested in the manufacture of soap and candles, and afterwards, in the distillation of the shales found at Hartley Vale, on the Blue Mountains. In the absence of Professor Smith, he lectured for some time on Chemistry at the Sydney University. He practised as an Analyst in Sydney from 1870, and during the administration of Sir John Robertson he was appointed Government Analyst, a chemical laboratory being built for him on the site now occupied by the Department of Public. Health, but ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 3 his official connection with the Government dated back to the year 1875. Mr. Watt died at Parramatta on the 19th July, 1899. Papers read in 1899.—Dnuring the past year the Society held eight meetings, at which the average attendance of members was 39, and of visitors 3, the following nineteen papers were read :— L. 2, ade it. President’s Address, by G. H. Knibbs, F.R.4.s. Key to Tribes and Genera of the Floridez (Red or Purple Marine Algz), by Richard A. Bastow. (Communicated by J. H. Maiden, F.L.s.). . On the metamorphosis of the young form of /ilaria Bancrofti, Cobb, [Filaria sanguinis hominis, Lewis ; Pilaria nocturna, Manson] in the body of Culex ciliaris, Linn., the “ House Mosquito of Australia,” by T. L. Bancroft, m.s. . Suggestions for depicting diagrammatically the character of Seasons, as regards Rainfall, and especially that of Droughts, by H. Deane, M.A., M.Inst. C.E., &e. . Observations on the determination of Drought-intensity, by G. H. Knibbs, F.r.4.s., Lecturer in Surveying, University of Sydney. . On the crystalline camphor of Eucalyptus Oil (Eudesmol), and the natural formation of EKucalyptol, by Henry G. Smith, F.c.S., Technological Museum, Sydney. . Divisions of some Aboriginal Tribes, Queensland, by R. H. Matthews, L.s. . The Initiation Ceremonies of the Aborigines of Port Stephens, N.S. Wales, by W. J. Enright, B.a. (Communicated by R. H. Matthews, L.s.). ; . Sailing Birds are dependent on Wave-power, by L. Hargrave. 10. Some applications and developments of the Prismoidal Formula, by G. H. Knibbs, F.r.a.s., Lecturer in Surveying, University of Sydney. Current Papers, No. 4, by H. ©. Russell, Ba., o.M.G., F.R.S. ™" 12. Discovery of Glaciated Boulders at base of Permo- Carboniferous System, Lochinvar, N.S. Wales, by Professor T. W. E. David, B.A., F.G.8s. 13. On N. 8. Wales Copper Ores Containing Iodine, by Arthur Dieseldorff, m.z., Freiberg, Baden, Germany. (Communicated by A. J. Bensusan, Assoc. R.S.M., F.C.S.). 14. On the Darwinias of Port Jackson and their Essentials Oils, by R. T. Baker, F.u.s., Curator, and H. G. Smith, r.cs., Assistant Curator, Technological Museum, Sydney. 15. Orbit Elements Comet I., 1899 (Swift), by C.J. Merfield, F.R.A.s. 4 WILLIAM M. HAMLET. 16. On the composition of N.S. Wales Labradorite and Topazes with a comparison of methods for the estimation of Fluorine, by G. Harker, B.Sc. (Communicated by Professor Liversidge, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.) 17. On a remarkable increase of temperature after dark at Seven Oaks, Macleay River, by Hugh Charles Kiddle, F.R. Met. Soe., . Public School, Seven Oaks, Macleay River. 18. Record of rock temperatures at Sydney Harbour Colliery, Birthday Shaft, Balmain, Sydney, N. S. Wales, by J. L. C. Rae, E. F. Pittman, Assoc. R.S.M.and Professor T. W. E. David, B.A., F.G.S. 19. Note on Edible Earth from Fiji, by the Hon. B. G. Corney, M.D., Professor T. W. E. David, B.a., F.G.s., and F. B. Guthrie, F.c.s. Sectional Meetings.—The Engineering Section held seven meetings, at which the average attendance of members and vistors was 27 ; the following papers were read and discussed :— 1. The Annual Address to the Engineering Section, by Norman Selfe, M. Inst. €.E. 2. The Sewerage Systems of North Sydney and Double Bay, by J. Davis, M. Inst. C.E. 3. The Manufacture of Monier Pipes, by F. M. Gummow. 4. Lecture on Liquid Air, by Professor Liversidge, M.A., LL.D., F.R.8. 5. “Le Pont Vierendeel,” by J. I. Haycroft, M. inst. C.E.1. ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 5 The Medical Section held four meetings at which numerous exhibits were shown, and the following papers were read and discussed :— 1. An outbreak of Dermatitis exfoliativa neonatorum, by Dr. Walter Spencer. 2. Bubonic Plague in 1141 B.C., by Frank Tidswell, u.p., and J. Adam Dick, m.p. 3. The Water Supply and Sewerage Systems of Sydney, by J. M. Smail, M. Inst. C.E. Financial Position.—The Hon. Treasurer’s Financial Statement shows that a further sum of £150 has been repaid to the Clarke Memorial Fund, and a balance of £36 14s. 5d. carried forward. LInbrary.—The amount expended on the Library during the past year was £128 15s. 6d., viz, £126 9s. 6d. for books and periodicals, and £2 6s. for binding. Amongst other works pur- chased were the collective indexes to the Transactions and Abstracts of the Chemical Society, London, from 1841 to 1892. The want of more shelving accommodation for the books is badly felt. Exchanges.—Last year we exchanged our Journal with four hundred and fourteen kindred Societies, receiving in return two hundred and thirty-eight volumes, one thousand seven hundred and forty parts, one hundred and fifty-eight reports, one hundred and eighty-nine pamphlets. one framed photo, twenty-four mounted photos, fifteen meteorological charts, two maps, one atlas each hydrographic, and geological charts, a total of two thousand three hundred and sixty-nine publications. The follow- ing institutions have been added to the exchange list :— Naturhistorische Gesellschaft, Nuremberg; British Medical Association (N.S.W. Branch); Mount Kosciusko Observatory, N.S.W.; Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, Honolulu; University of Chicago Press; Maryland Geological Survey, Baltimore ; Editor of the Mineral Industry, New York ; American Institute of Electrical Engineers, New York. 6 WILLIAM M. HAMLET. Workers in Chemistry have not been idle during the past year, as may be seen from the list enumerated above, there having been five papers in this subject, two of which are of special interest; I refer to Nos. 6 and 14, by Mr. R. T. Baker, and Henry G. Smith, Curator and Assistant-Curator respectively of the Technological Museum of Sydney. The oils from some half dozen new species of Kucalypts have been chemically investigated by Mr. Smith, who has been successful in obtaining from these oils some important constituents. He has also contributed to this Society a paper on the chemistry of the camphor of Eucalyptus oil (eudesmol). The discovery that the little shrub found on the sand hills around Port Jackson (Darwinia fascicularis), yielded an oil consisting largely of geranyl acetate was also made. ‘The presence of the important alcohol, geraniol, in this shrub in fairly large amount promises a great commercial future for this species. Of the work and discovery published in Europe, many things of purely theoretical interest have been announced, chief among these items I would mention the solidification of hydrogen, the sterilisation of water on the large scale, the discovery of a sub- stitute for india-rubber, which has been named ‘ velvril,’ and the extension of the researches on nitrification by Winogradsky and Oméliansky. The marked feature of modern chemistry is its broad compre- hensiveness, embracing as it does so many separate divisions in the affairs of life, the concentration of attention necessary in any one branch of chemical research being such as to demand all the available energy on the part of the individual ; hence in these times no single individual can presume to anything like a profound knowledge of the great science or even follow it in its many rami- fications. I therefore affirm that it does not come within the grasp of any one man to master the vast accumulation of facts now forming the science of chemistry, and the far-reaching appli- cations and multifarous adaptations of the science. On this account specialism is yearly becoming more pronounced, and the old dual divisions of the science into Organic and Inorganic, become ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 7 extended to—Systematic or descriptive chemistry; systematic studies of chain molecules, variants of carbon and _ nitrogen ; physical chemistry; mineralogical chemistry; pharmaceutical chemistry; applied metallurgical and manufacturing chemistry ; physiological chemistry including its applications to pathology and biology generally; State chemistry. Caution is now more than ever needed in warning the science worker to avoid the danger he runs of falling into ruts on the highroad of Science, since the narrowing influence of specialism may, and probably does, cramp the vision, interfering with that coherent thought that sees the continuity and correlation of the Universe. Pure Chemistry—the science dealing essentially with the con- stitution, properties and transformations of what we provisionally call ‘matter’—co-existent throughout all time and space, presents us in imagination with a picture of our world in times so remote, that the interval between them and any historic period is greater than one can imagine or realise. The Hon. James Norton, LL.D., President of the Linnean Society, has lately given us an estimate of the age of Australia which he puts at ninety-three millions of years. Taking the period during which life has appeared on the earth as seven hundred and four millions of years, then probably one thousand millions of years will carry us back to the gaseous epoch—times when seas of liquid lava afforded footing neither for man, nor for any other living creature. Our terrestial history may thus be summarised :— I. Cosmic epochs of molecular dissociation, when definite compounds as now revealed to our sense-organs, did not exist ; epochs, for example, when silicon and oxygen could not assume the crystalline solid form we so familiarly know as quartz, forming as it does, a solid crust for a habitable earth. II. Viscous epochs, or plastic times, when the globe began to consolidate and form its crust. III. The long avenues of Geological Time. IV. The succession of Paleolithic and Neolithic Ages. 8 WILLIAM M. HAMLET. V. Prehistoric ages covered by the science of Geology. VI. Some ninety centuries of Historic Time. I do not presume to discuss those far away fascinating epochs of gaseous kinetics when the earth began to condense from its initial glowing vapoury vortex ; conditions that may be said to be, ‘not yet within the range of practical crystallisation,’ but, as with the wand of the magician, [ pass over sundry millions of years, and come down to the earliest historic period—one opened up for us through the brilliant discoveries of the Egyptologist, who places at our disposal contemporary records unique in value. But it is hardly possible to think of Egypt and Africa without digressing for a moment or two on those activities that now dominate por- tions of the British Empire in the Southern Hemisphere. That the end of so brilliant a century as the nineteenth should be marred by both war and plague, seems to me to be a humiliating blot upon the escutcheon of our human progress ; for a generation or more peace and progress have gone hand in hand, until we believed it to be almost impossible that events such as those we now witness could have happened, ‘‘considering,” as Carlyle says, ‘“‘our present advanced state of culture, and how the torch of science has now been brandished and borne about with more or less effect.” Such events are ugly survivals, not of the fittest, but of the undesirable, to be deplored by all thoughtful men, most of all by the man of science who has long contemplated their entire abolition from this planet. We have colonised this great continent of Australia, but there yet exists among us all the defects of the old regime, while the barrier of grim ignorance bars the way towards that true progress begotten of enlightment, whose reward is virtue and length of days. Here, so far as disease is concerned, I am reminded of the words of the illustrious Pasteur, “Tl est au pouvoir de ’homme de faire disparaitre de la surface — du globe les maladies parasitaires.” The ideal and as yet unattained Utopia—the City of Health depicted by Benjamin Ward Richardson—seems still very far off and will remain but the dream of the enthusiast, until the lessons ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 9 of elementary sanitation.shall have been learned and taken to heart by the masses of the people. This reproach on our vaunted civilisation must ever remain whilst science teaching is regarded _as something dry and curious, apart and remote from the wants of every day life. What a field for the establishment of the new and perfect City of Hygeia—the very Civitas Der—this Australia might have afforded us. I for one cherish the hope that the Federal City in this land of Australia will at least serve as the model of what can be accomplished in gilding the real with the ideal. Let the new city be the fruit of the full and complete knowledge of sanitation and an enlightened state policy, let it become the abode, figuratively and literally both of sweetness and light. May politicians arise from the dusty scramble for mere place and power, and labour towards the attainment of realisable ideals, and all that is implied by the term ‘commonwealth.’ But may not war and plague have their compensating after influences, witness already the ready outburst of Australian patriotism, and the application of modern research in dealing with maladies never dreamt of, say when Newton went down from Cambridge to the memorable seclusion of Woolsthorpe, to avoid the plague in the year 1666. Let us turn our attention from South Africa to the north of the Dark Continent, to that ancient land—the cradle of our science —to Egypt the home and birth-place of what was then known as the black art hidden science represented by the word x7pea. The word yypeu" first occurs in the Lexicon of Suidas, a Greek writer of the eleventh century, where it is defined as the art of preparing gold and silver ; but the idea of something black, 7.¢., the black art, obscure and hidden, is related to the Coptic or Egyptian khems, signifying obscure. According to Plutarch, the derivation of kemie is confirmed, namely, as I have already said, from the black soil of Egypt, the native name for Egypt itself being kemie, signi- fying black, the black soil of the land of Egypt. Used in con- junction with the Arabic particle ‘al’ equivalent to our definite 1 \npa, chema. texvn tepa, the sacred art. 10 WILLIAM M. HAMLET. article ‘the,’ we have a number of words interesting to the chemist including even the name given to the science itself. It may be interesting to make four of these words serve as the frame-work or text of my address to you on this occasion, [ there- fore bring before your notice the words:—Alkemie, Alkali, Alkaloid and Alkohol. Any historical survey of chemistry necessarily leads us back to the days of early Egypt, back to the age in which flourished the long extinct University of On, or Heliopolis, or Diospolis, with its reputed hundred professors, amongst whom we may reasonably conclude there must have been someone corresponding to our modern professor, not of chemistry — but of Kemie—the black art. Time will not, nor will your patience allow me to do more than glance at this fascinating subject, but among the notable alchemists of a later age I will mention two remarkable men, Geber and Paracelsus, and these but briefly, since both Geber and Paracelsus have received atten- tion from two of our members, Professor Liversidge! and Mr. F. B. Guthrie,* in addresses given before the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science. Geber and Paracelsus both, stand out in prominent outline in the records of history; Berthelot gives the name of the former as Jabir ib Hayyam; another authority gives the name as Gescheber. However that may be, he was a physician of the eighth century, and in the fulsome exaggeration of eastern writers, was said to be the author of five hundred treatises! He knew probably of the properties of many metals and minerals, the hydrostatic balance, the smelting furnace, the arts of distillation, sublimation, crystal- lisation and filtration; all however subordinated to the search after the Elixir Vite and the Philosopher’s stone. Paracelsus, who stands immortalised by the poet Robert Brown- ing, was of the sixteenth century, born at Einsiedeln in Switzer- land in 1493, (obiit 1541) and taught that the object of chemistry 1 Presidential Address, Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science, Sydney 1898. 2 Address Chemical Section, Melbourne 1900. ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 1 i was not so much the making of gold, as the advancement of medicine in the service of man; that the operations that go on in the human body are chemical functions. Like the ancient that he was, he personified energy and attributed good digestion to the action of the good genius Archzus who rendered the nutriment consumed assimilable, and separated the indigestible and excretory products. Disease was to be cured by medicines; and these in turn were to be provided by the sacred science of chemistry, extotHun tepa. Numbers, letters, the signs of the zodiac, animals, plants and organic substances form the symbolic notation of the time, and many of these there are in the vocabulary of the modern science of to-day, and not only of science, but our common language contains words of every day use; witness the word ‘gibberish,’ derived from the proper name Geber; and ‘bombast,’ from Paracelsus, who rejoiced in the name of Phillipus Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus Paracelsus. The acidulous critic will, I trust, exonerate me from both bombast and gibberish taken in their modern significance. Two other words of interest to the modern chemist, have come down to us from the alchemists, one, the familiar bain marie, used by the French for their water bath ; the term being derived from the jewess Mary, contemporary with Democritus ; and the other, the seal of Hermes. The ancients personified most things, and as Hermes was held high in reverence as the patron-father of the ‘black art,’ its devotees were spoken of as the Hermetic Philoso- -phers: one of the methods of the art being that of enclosing their gold solutions in glass, out of contact with the air, hence to her- metically seal a vessel, is both an operation and a phrase in use to this day. But the swummum bonum of the ancient alchemist, was the search for— “that stone which Philosophers in vain so long have sought. In vain, though by their powerful art they bind Volatile Hermes, and call up unbound In various shapes old Proteus from the sea, Drained through a limbec to his native form. What wonder then if fields and regions here 12 WILLIAM M. HAMLET. Breathe forth elixir pure, and rivers run Potable gold, when with one virtuous touch, Th’ arch-chemic Sun, so far from us remote, Produces, with terrestrial humour mixed, Here in the dark so many precious things Of colour glorious and effect so rare? ” Arising from the fruitless search for the magic stone' and the elixir vite, there appear many useful things, but above all a work- ing theory regarding the nature of things; I refer to the four- element theory of fire, air, earth, and water, of Empedocles, which by no means could appear absurd or worthless to the ancients, for only a century ago the term ‘earth’ meant, and included, many solid substances ; three amongst them being known, and even known to this day as ‘alkaline earths.’ Moreover ‘water’ both meant and included all liquids, and embodied the idea of liquidity generally, while ‘air’ embraced all gases and vapours; and ‘fire’ was nothing less than the all-prevailing energy acting upon and changing all the visible forms of matter. Have we so very much advanced in our notions of general classification, when we remember that our three-fold division of matter stands as solid, liquid, and gaseous? Historical chemistry, then, leads us back to the alchemists, the general trend of whose labours were, unconsciously, towards the foundations of our present science; but let us never forget that the changes we speak of as chemical, were in full operation away back in ages more remote than any historical period. Primeval is but a relative term, leading us back in imagination to periods when terrestrial atmospheres were irrespirable gases enfolding the reeking planet. To Egypt and the EKast—the theatre of many lost civilisations—the chemist turns with never-failing interest. Egypt he looks upon as the birthplace of the great science ; where tombs, temples, papyri and cylinders of baked clay are now unfolding their interesting records and linking the present with the past.’ 1 That gold was the chief object of search by the alchemist, by the aid of his ‘‘ magic stone,” is shown by the name which the science of chemistry originally bore, namely, Xpucorota. 2 For many of these interesting details, I am indebted to the researches of Maspero, Mahaffy, Professor Petrie, and the Wiedemann Geschichte. ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 1. Pass with me, in imagination, to the two great rival cities of Egypt—Memphis and Thebes—the hundred-gated Thebes men- tioned by Homer.! Both cities were presided over by their tutelary gods, Ptah Ra and Ammon, Amen, Amun or Ammon-Ra; and while Memphis had surrendered on the triumphal entry of Alexander the Great into Egypt, the Greek conqueror, for political reasons, had offered sacrifice to these deities in order te win over public opinion; but the greater amongst the gods was Ammon, whose temple was at Thebes, and whose celebrated shrine lay at some distance across the Nitrian desert at the Oasis of Ammon. This place was, in the eyes of the Egyptians, the holy of holies; for here, and here only, could the Pharoah become the anointed King of Egypt, the chosen of Ra, the beloved of Ammon, victor of the world, ruler supreme, and dispenser of immortality. Such a consummation of royal prerogatives was devoutly wished for by the great Alexander, who nothing lacking, proceeded forthwith to the oracle of Ammon where he was welcomed by the high priests, put through the rite and ceremonies of Ammon, endowed with the immortal token, the only formula which could stamp him as the chosen of Ra, the beloved of Ammon, the king divine of all Egypt. Unusual interest is, I think, attached to this regal formula and ceremonial, this famous dictum, ‘chosen of Ra, beloved of Ammon’; inasmuch as two. species of matter, one an element, the other a compound, take us back to very ancient stages of the historic period: I here refer to the element copper and the more complex nucleus ammonia. I believe the name copper is comparatively of modern origin, the Roman derivation being, as is well known, from the island of Cyprus, while the older xaAKos, may have come to the Greeks after having filtered its way, and therefore becoming corrupted, through the Phenician and Etruscan languages. I hold it to be probable that the original word, signifying the well known red metal, is derived from the sun-god Ra, (1€Avos.) The weapons and implements of primitive man in the land of the Nile were, of course, the chipped flints; many examples of + Tliad, 1x., 381. 14 WILLIAM M. HAMLET. which are given by M. J. De Morgan ;' while later on, but still in pre-historic times, as well as during the earlier dynasties, copper tools, vases and weapons were in use in Egypt. It is easy to suppose that bright ruddy copper should be linked in name with the sun, and the Sun-god Ra, whose symbol in cartouche and hieroglyphic was ©. This supposition finds support in the sur- vival of the word ‘rame,’ used to this day by the Italians to denote the metal copper. Rame seems to be derived from other sources than decayed Latin, for if we bear in mind that the people now speaking Italian, inhabit the very same country of ancient Etruria?” and knowing the persistence with which some words survive, even ~ the decay of empires, it seems to me to be by no means a far fetched theory to account for the word rame, as the survival of a word that has come down to us from Egyptian and Etruscan sources, it is, I think, more than a mere coincidence. Itis also a curious fact that the word in the Etruscan language denoting the country itself, is— AY AZAY Rasena (read from right to left). The word for copper would be in Etruscan— if we form the word phonetically from the little ITIA q we know of Etruscan—that un- classed solitary remnant of the languages of the past, Passing from the question as to the derivation of the word ‘rame’ as an existing Huropean name for copper, I would point out another link connecting the antiquity of ancient Egypt with our present day science; that link is to be found in the word given to the volatile alkali—that familiar, pungent, tear-exciting liquid — spirits of hartshorn, which, when vapourised, is the alkaline air of our forefathers—ammonia.”* The Greek conquerors noted with what esteem Ammon was held by the Egyptians, and we have seen its importance in the anointing of kings. Among Greek gods, the 1M. De Morgan—Recherches sur l’origine d’ Egypte. 2 The Cities and Countries of Etruria by Geo. Dennis London Murray. 3 Ammonia, as a gas, was discovered by Priestly in 1774; the solution was, however, known to the alchemists of the fifteenth century as Spiritus salis urine. x ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 15 nearest analogue to Ammon would be their Zeus, whereupon they were not slow in identifying him with their great Jupiter—Ocos Qeov, as Plato calls him; so the god was henceforth given the double appellation, Jupiter Ammon.’ Ammon is twice mentioned in the prophetical books of the Old Testament :—‘“‘I will punish Ammon of No,? and Pharoah, and Egypt, with her gods, and her kings; even Pharoah and them that trust in him.”’ “Art thou better than populous No, [Nu] Ammon, situate among the rivers, whose rampart was the sea, [the Nile] Ethiopia and Egypt were her strength, and it was infinite.” * Now it is highly probable that the distillation of camel’s dung, or the soot derived from its combustion, yielded a product known to the Egpytians as a source of ammonia; while the white deposits found in some parts, notably in the Nitrian desert, yielded nitre,° called also nitron, which gives us, in turn, the root for our appropri- ate nitro-generator, nitrogen, so named by Chaptal. If, therefore, Zeus or Ammon,’ the chief among gods, was the father of mankind, 1Tke fossils of the Mesozoic Age known as Ammonites are also named after the convoluted horn, pictured on the head of the god Jupiter- Ammon. 2 No, On, Heliopolis, or AvooroXus. On or Beth-shemesh, Jer. xliii. 13. Curiously enough the letters of these words are often transposed in ancient writings, and may occur both as On or No. 3 Jer. xlvi. 25. 4 Nahum iii. 8. 5 By the word ‘ nitre,’ often ‘nitron’ and ‘ natron,’ was included a white generic soda compound. I am indebted to The Chemist and Druggist fora brief notice of Soda in Egypt, which bears on this subject :—‘‘ North-West from Cairo, between two small hills, stretches a valley which, by reason of the large quantity of soda found in it, was formerly known far and wide. Until the discovery of the Leblanc process, this soda was sent in large quantities to Europe, but during recent decades the export of Egyptian soda has been limited to Greece and Turkey. The soda-valley possesses a considerable number of lakes from ten to twelve metres under sea level. With the rising of the Nile, which takes place in about the end of August, the lakes begin to fill, and reach their highest point about the end of January. In the month of March the water gradually evaporates, and the bed is covered with a layer of natural soda, which presents the appearance of large lumps of ice. The deposits at Wady Natron are practically inexhaustible.”’ 6 Whether the Ammonites, the tribes mentioned in the Old Testament, derive their name in this way is uncertajn. 16 WILLIAM M. HAMLET. then this alkaline body’ and its primary congener, nitrogen, both bear interesting names, associated as they are with all that pertains to life upon this planet. Particularly interesting is the evolution of the simple symbol N for nitrogen. The hieroglyphic sign used by the ancient Egyptians, as may be seen in the cartouche of the Pharaohs, at Abydos and elsewhere, is » ; the Phcenician is 7; the Etruscan form is 7; while the Greek form brings it nearly identical with the modern n. If of such interest from the antiquarian point of view, will they not afford equal, or perchance greater interest, from the point of view _ of molecular mechanics ? Our position as to scientific belief is this:—that the depart- ments of knowledge dealing with the properties of aggregates of matter, and hitherto labelled and recorded under the terms chemistry and physics, may, and rather should, be termed the mechanics of the Ether; for do we not exist in an Ethereal con- tinuum, when facts are now being co-related, in a manner the like of which is unknown in history? The air is thick, it has been said, with impending discovery just as the world wasin Newton’s time waiting the arrival of the master mind who shall link together all that is now known, harvesting the results into a new and greater ‘ Principia.’ That those complete and radical changes exhibited in ethereal vortex motion, the so-called matter, should be classed as chemistry: while the transient vortex changes capable of speedy diminution, reversal, and change back again into the original state should form the domain of physics, is convenient for purposes of reference and study, but where chemistry ceases or physics begins, can nowadays be only of interest to the curious: the chemist must embrace both. Time does not allow of my treating these matters other than as 1 ‘lhe word ‘alkali’ means ‘to fry,’ or ‘ the fry,’ ‘the roasted’ (al kali), the arabic word qualey, or kaley, meaning fried, or roasted ina pan; hence the calcined ash left on the incineration of a plant or of any vegetable matter was called al kali, a word that has come down to us, practically unchanged, from the alchemistss ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 17 generalities, but we may, I think, try and picture in space and follow in imagination, the track of a molecule of ammonia, con- fining ourselves to common terrestial temperatures, disregarding on the one hand dissociation temperatures, as well as that wonderful approach to the absolute zero, made during the last year or so, by Dewar in solidifying hydrogen. The mental picture I have of the ammonia molecule is that of a central nucleus and attendant atoms, which we may call the central sun and planets of an imaginary planetary system. This sun we call nitrogen, and, without doing violence to our newer conceptions of matter being a vortex motion, is a conceivable mass, holding three planets at fixed but, to us, unknown distances. These three planets are none other than the hydrogen atoms. Place these planets in their proper orbits, and we picture the ammonia system in space. But facts show us that there must be five possible orbits; witness the compound sal-ammoniac. But, with the magic clash of atoms and the redistribution of vantage positions in the molecule, let both a carbon atom, two oxygen atoms and a water molecule, come into position in opposition to two molecules of ammonia, and we have ammonia carbonate.! Once again, rearrange the positions inside the molecule and we have the molecule of urea, being in fact, the famous synthesis by Wohler of the first compound of animal origin made artificially in the laboratory. Nitrogen being the central figure of the ancient alkaline air we call ammonia, is moreover the pivot-atom of a class of bodies of much later discovery, which, having the power of combining with an acid to form a salt, resemble an alkali and were therefore called alkaloids, [like alkali]. The relations and constitution of some of these alkaloids will be seen from what follows :—After the synthesis of urea by Friedrich Wohler in 1828, it was felt that the structure of the more complex uric acid would yield to the atom-building-instinct of the modern chemist ; _ this was effected by Behrend and Roosen, also by Horbaczewski, 1 The Spiritus urine of the ancients. B—May 2, 1900. 18° WILLIAM M. HAMLET. but the most complete demonstration of the structure of uric acid is given us by the brilliant researches of Fischer." He formulates a framework thus :— iN=O, | Co C.—N7 | Reese: N= ON Filling up the available hydrogen positions, a compound is represented which has actually been obtained, called by Fischer, purine, (purum uricum ): N—CH al HC one ia CH N— C= Naw Hypoxanthine is 6—oxypurine, and Xanthine is 2 : 6—dioxy- purine. Extending the oxygen positions to 2 :6:8 we get trioxypurine or uric acid : HN—co [eal oc Ci be COH HN—C—N~ . Placing two methyl radicles in the third and seventh positions we have 3 : 7—dimethylxanthine which is the alkaloid—theobromine. The addition of a third methyl] radicle formulates the composition of caffeine, the alkaloid present in tea and coffee, and which is 1:3: 7—trimethylxanthine— CH, N——CO | ho Osye | | CH Nee Sn CH, What may be the structure of the globulins, the albumoses, hetero- and deutero-, the peptones, and that family of compounds 1 Nature, Vol. ux1., p. 187. ae ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 19 often spoken of as albuminoids, we cannot yet determine, but I crave your attention for a few moments to consider the origin and final destiny of some of the nitrogenous bodies I have mentioned. The economical evolution of human energy, is a problem that is attracting a good deal of attention, but the human machine, in converting the potential energy of bread and cheese into muscular and mental activity, or into some equivalent work value, has to dispose of effete waste matter—excretory products—that may be compared to the smoke, ashes and scoriz of the steam engine; for as in raising energy by means of steam we have waste products, so we have three excretory products expelled from the human body. They are:—(1) Carbon dioxide ; (2) Urea and uric acid, together with a number of bodies of greater interest to the pathologist than to the sanitarian ; (3) Surplus undigested food,’ cellulose and indigestible fibre, embodying the waste—food-ashes called excreta. Now all these substances, once outside man’s body, recoil on him, offending all his senses, while under many circumstances they become a danger and a menace to his very life, but more particularly do they effect the well-being of his near neighbours ; it is but a truism to say, that man’s duty to his neighbour, there- fore, includes also the continual adjustment of his internal relations to those external relations of the State, of which he is a member. This danger becomes accentuated, the offensiveness more pronounced, the more man becomes civilised, and the more closely men congregate together in towns and cities; [ emphasise the latter condition, because the further men live apart, the easier of solution is the difficulty. We have then something to be gotten rid of. How ancient man, and how man in a state of nature, does get rid of it is obvious and known to all.” How the question was severely let alone, down to within a half century ago, I need not particularise to any great extent, 1 The greater the amount of the latter the worse for the individual, who in this respect is the slave of unproductive energy. 2 For the Mosaic injunction, see Deuteronomy, xxiii. 12 & 13, R. Ver. 20 WILLIAM M. HAMLET. sufficient it will be if I say that town inhabitants :—(1) Used the street as a sewer ; (2) Advanced to the cespool] system, the use of pans, tubs, et hoc genus omne; (3) Invented the water-carriage method of removal with discharge into rivers and seas. But anew danger arises from the mixing with water and removal to a distance, man is confronted with new dangers and new diseases— sewer disease, and the next question is, what is he to do with it ? how dispose of it having in view two things: the health of the state, and economy—if needs be. Of the many methods of purification, by chemical precipitation, by electrical decomposition, I shall not weary you with, but proceed to the next stage of my subject, namely, that of fermentation, and afterwards, more particularly, to that of ammonical fermentation. Fermentation is the name given to the phenomenon of change which takes place when saccharine and other liquids, are acted upon by micro-organisms at their proper life-temperatures, the word fermentation being derived from fervere to boil. When the minute organism known as Saccharomyces cerevisce grows and multiplies at a temperature of 25° to 35° C. in sugar solutions, alcohol, carbon dioxide and some other bodies are formed; 100 parts of cane sugar or 105:26 parts of grape sugar yielding on fermentation :—Alcohol 51:11 per cent.; carbon dioxide 48°89 per cent.; succinic acid 0°67 per cent.; glycerin 3:16 per cent. Thus, out of one hundred parts of cane sugar, about ninety-five parts are decomposed, four parts disappear and form succinic acid, glycerin and carbon dioxide, while one part is added to the newly- formed ferment. The chief body sought for in fermentation is alcohol, and here we have our fourth arabic word, al-Kohol. The word alcohol means in arabic ‘the finest powder,’ and at one time denoted the fine powder used by ladies to beautify the eyes; a fine metallic powder being used in the East to stain the eyelids. With the early alchemists, it meant a sublimate or anything in a very fine state of division ; flowers of sulphur, for instance. It was prob- ably applied to finely powdered quicklime, which if used to ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 21 strengthen spirit by absorbing the water that always accompanies alcohol, would give meaning to the term spiritus alcoholisatus; thus alcoholised spirit soon became corrupted to simple alcohol, which is a far more modern term than either spiritus or aqua vite. Kopp, in his Geschichte der Chemie, supports this view as to the origin of the word alcohol. : Alcohol is also defined as an essence—a quintessence,’ or spirit obtained by distillation or rectification, it is the shorter term for ‘alcohol of wine,’ this being the most familiar of spirits; the Teutonic ‘Branntwein’ from ‘brennen,’ to burn or to fire, giving rise to our word ‘brandy,’ while the Keltic, through the Erse or Trish rendering of eau de vie or aqua vite, usque-baugh, gives us, corrupted, ‘whisky.’ The modern chemical application of the word however, is given to a systematic series of compounds, the first term of which is methyl alcohol, the second, we hear a great deal of—one notorious name | will here modify to that of the ‘soluble fiend,’ but whether diluted into a drink, or employed as a vehicle for varnishing and polishing furniture, it is also a valuable and highly concentrated fuel, that may some day, when the coal measures are exhausted, become the fuel of the future. We have traced through some periods of the world’s history the four words—alkemie, alkali, alkaloid, and alkohol—and you will have perhaps perceived that I do not now intend dealing with the famous stimulant, the aqua vite of the ancients, the ethylic alcohol of the moderns, but my purpose is to show how the phenomenon of fermentation is now being made use of, through a totally different set of fermentation-products, in attacking one of the most import. ant sanitary problems of the age. From what has already been said, the waste and effete products derived from human beings, when congregated in cities and towns, mixed with a miscellaneous variety of waste liquids from manufactories and human dwellings» make up a liquid of great complexity—a liquid well-known and well-hated as sewage. The question as to its disposal, quickly 1 Quintessence means the fifth rectification beyond which it was thought useless or impossible to go. 22, WILLIAM M. HAMLET. cheaply, and above all effectively, is an important one. What is to be done with it? This is an oft-repeated cry. involving a question that has tried the patience and ingenuity of whole genera- tions of men, while with too many of us this repugnant subject is shelved, the burden of dealing with it being laid on whomsoever will take it upon his shoulders. Men, ostrich-like, pretend not to know of the existence of the evil, ‘pass by on the other side,’ leaving it to Bumbledom to grossly mismanage. To enumerate or describe a tithe of what has been done and suggested, and the multitude of schemes that have appeared, would filla volume. Such a task I do not intend to enter upon; it is enough to know of the existence of a putrescible liquid that must —profitably or otherwise—be removed and disposed of: a duty imperative on the part of the body politic. Methods of removal are mechanical, and belong to the domain of the engineer ; methods of disposal are of another order, and belong to the domain of biology and chemistry ; so that biologist, chemist, and engineer, join forces in attacking a problem, old as when Tarquinius Priscus first sought to do the same for ancient Rome twenty centuries back, when the famous Cloaca Maxima discharged itself into the Tiber. Hitherto, what has been done? After great expenditure of time, energy and money, the latter probably running into millions, men begin to ask how mankind has borne with the evil in the past. The answer is, that water- carried sewage was unknown in pre-Roman times, everything being expeditiously returned to Mother Earth from whence it ~ came. With us moderns, the method of removal by water con- siderably enchances the difficulty. With the idea of returning excreta to the soil the sewage farm came into existence, but experience has shown it to be a dismal failure, resulting in water- logging and fouling land that could otherwise be turned to more profitable uses. Now let us apply the method of fermentation to ordinary sewage, what must happen? In the case of sugary liquids, we see the cells of Saccharomyces cerevise break down the con- stitution of sugar, yielding carbon dioxide and alcohol. What ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 23 should the organism in sewage do? In the light of experiments made during the last few years, this liquid should be resolved into ammonia, carbonate of ammonia, nitrate of ammonia, marsh gas and carbon dioxide, the chief nitrogen and carbon-constituents of the sewage—in other words, a complete breaking down of highly complex nitrogenous and carbonaceous bodies into harmless innocuous inorganic compounds. This breaking down of nitrogenous matter may be best exempli- fied in its very simplest form, namely, in that of the ammoniacal fermentation of urine, the chief constituent of which is urea, a compound that may be resolved into other compounds, the next simplest in order to those resulting from its ultimate decomposition, (hydrolysis of urea, Dumas), for by simple heating with water, or heating in a alkaline solution, the following change takes place :— 004 NH OH. — CO, £2 NH, By zymolysis, 7.e., by the intervention of life-changes, or in other words by simple ammoniacal fermentation (Pasteur, 1860, Van Tieghem, 1864) this self same change is brought about by the microscopic organism Micrococcus uree. By simply abandoning urine exposed to the air, this organic change is quickly brought about ; the whole of the urea becoming converted into carbon dioxide and ammonia, which, at common temperatures, would combine as ammonia carbonate, a compound easily resolvable by the nitrifying organisms into ammonia nitrite and finally, into ammonia nitrate. We have here what has been called the ‘septic system of sewage disposal,’ the analogue, in some respects, of alcoholic fermentation, but instead of ethylic alcohol being the product of the symbiotic change, it is probable that the simpler methylic alcohol”is evolved, which under the circumstances, 1 Pasteur, Comptes rendus, Vol. 1., 1860. Van Tieghem, Comptes rendus, Vol. tviit., 1864. Jaksch, Zeitschrift, f. physiologische Chemie, Vol. v., 1881, p.395. Leubeand Grasser, Virchow’s Archiv, Vol. c., p. 556. 2 Mr. Doherty at my request searched Sydney sewage and effluents therefrom for methyi alcohol but hitherto without success. I am afraid that even should it be found the critic may say it had originally come from methylated spirit thrown away with the liquid domestic waste. 24 WILLIAM M. HAMLET. is resolved a stage further in the direction of simplification to methane, which with hydrogen and carbon dioxide, are the principal gases evolved in the process. After the discovery of the function of nitrification brought about by the nitrifying organisms by Warrington and Percy Frankland, the State Board of Health of Massachusetts in 1888-9 were induced to try the method of natural self-purification by these organisms. To Captain Sir Douglas Galton’ belongs the credit of introducing the system to the notice of English sanitarians. The process was very soon tried, and Dibdin in 1893, was astonished to find that by merely passing sewage through a shallow coke filter, he obtained a fairly good effluent, as good as some that were then being obtained by more expensive precipitation processes. Scott-Moncrieff in 1892 devised a clever application of the system, using an open tank filled with flints for the first fermentation, then passing the liquid over a series of trays con- taining coke, all exposed to the air, whereby the work of the nitrifying organisms had full effect, resulting in a beautiful clear effluent approaching in character to a potable water. Donald Cameron was the first to boldly take the process in hand and use it on a large scale, which he did in 1896 at Belle Isle, Exeter, since when, it has been known as the Biological Method, or Septic Tank System. It should here be stated that several modifications have been introduced by others, so that we have the primary biological method, with or without previous chemical precipitation processes, but the true zymolysisof sewage should becarried on withabsolutely no addition of chemicals or antiseptics whatsoever. Ducat introduced his aérated, bacterial, self-acting coke-bed in 1897; Dibden? had, however, been working at the natural or self- purification of sewage from 1884 to 1898, and his results, obtained by simply passing crude sewage through coke and ‘breeze’ filter- 1 Jour. Sanitary Institute, Vol. xvut. p. 1. 2 Journ. Soc. Chem., Ind., Vol. xiv., p. 922; and Idem, Vol. xvil., p. 315° ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 25 beds, were such a success that chemists and sanitarians could no longer afford to ignore the merits of the method ; hence experi- ments were made in a number of places in the Empire, Sydney included. In the meantime the London County Council had determined to severely test the new, or rather old, biological pro- cess, and in the hands of Drs. Clowes and Houston such gratifying results were obtained that I make no apology in giving you an account of the treatment of the crude sewage of the City of London.t These two gentlemen are chemist and bacteriologist respectively to the London County Council, and great interest is now being taken in their results, inasmuch as they are both inde- pendent scientific men, having no patent-right interest in the process. Their attention was directed to the purification of London’s crude sewage as it is delivered at the Barking and Crossness Outfall Works. A bacteriological examination of the sewage showed that between three and four millions of micro-organisms are present in one centimeter cube of the crude sewage, their rate of propaga- tion or growth being from sixteen to seventeen millions per twenty-four hours. They consist of*:—JS. Hnteritides sporogenes,; B. Colt communis; B. mycoides; B. subtilis; B. mesentericus; Sarcine Yeast-cells, Saccharomyces, sp.; Moulds; 5. Fluorescens liquefaciens; and other Protean forms, vaguely known in the elder Frankland’s time as the ‘sewage fungus.’ It is shown that the putrefaction of sewage may proceed by aérobic bacteria under aérobic conditions; by anaérobic bacteria under semi-anaérobic conditions; and by strictly anaérobic bacteria under strictly anaérobic bacteria. Dr. Clowes abandoned all likely complications arising from over- elaboration of apparatus, doing away with the shallow trays used 1 Bacterial Treatment of Sewage (Second Report) by Dr. Clowes and Dr. Houston. London: P. S. King and Son, Great Smith-street, Victoria- street, Westminster. 2 Filtration of Sewage—Report on the Bacteriological Examination of London Crude Sewage by Dr. Frank Clowes (First Report). London: P. S. King and Son, Great Smith-street, Victoria-street, Westminster. 26 WILLIAM M. HAMLET. by Scott-Moncrieff, as well as the closed septic tank of Cameron, reducing the experiments to the last stage of simplicity. Two plain open rectangular brick-lined tanks, twenty-two feet six inches long, ten feet eight inches wide, and twelve feet deep, giving a superficial area of 323 of an acre each. A third tank, of similar shape and area, but six feet in depth, was also employed to note differences in efficiency caused by depth. Laid on the bottom of these tanks were parallel series of loosely-jointed drain pipes to assist in drawing off the effluent. Walnut-sized fragments of common gas-coke are placed in the tanks to the depths of four and six feet respectively. When thus ready, the coke beds are filled with screened sewage, the screening intercepting some curious and miscellaneous items of the wealth of the absent minded citizen, such as tobacco pipes, purses (empty), brushes, combs, and Dr. Clowes even mentions ‘wedding rings.’ Seven minutes are allowed for the filling of the tank, then comes a resting period of three hours. The word ‘rest’ is here but a relative term, for it is really a period of great bacterial activity. The outflow afterwards extends over one hour, the bed remaining eight hours empty in order to aérate itself. The tank is again filled and the sequence continued, one million gallons per acre per day being the working capacity of the system. Later experiments made with thirteen feet beds show no appre- ciable advantages over the six feet of coke. Here then we have an intermittent process for the treatment of sewage of undoubted simplicity: crude sewage is screened and flowed into a tank con- taining some four or six feet of coke, in pieces of the size of walnuts, submerged for three hours, and just allowed to flow out again. ’ And what are the results? Clowes measures the degree of puri- fication attained by this process by finding the amount of oxygen required te oxidise the putrescible organic matter; first in the raw sewage, and then in the effluent. The results show that over fifty per cent. of purification takes place. His figures show that 51-30 per cent.’ of the putrescible organic matter is dealt with, so that an effluent is obtained pure enough to support fish life. 1 In allowing a longer period of time for the fermentation, results as high as eighty-six per cent. have been obtained by Clowes. ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. D7 The general conclusions arrived at by Dr. Clowes are:—that the process offers the readiest and the cheapest method of sewage purification at presentknown. He says, that “neither on chemical not possibly on bacteriological grounds can any serious objection be raised to the introduction of the effluent from the coke-beds into a portion of the river Thames which is cut off by locks from the intakes of the Water Companies, and the water from which is not employed for drinking purposes, and cannot be used on account of its ‘brackish’ nature. The effluent certainly will not cause any deposit upon the river-bed, and will even tend to render the turbid water of the lower river more clear and transparent. At the same time, the liquid discharged from the outfall into the river will be sweet and entirely free from smell. Further, it will carry into the river the bacteria necessary for completing its own purification in contact with the aérated river water, and under no conditions can it therefore become foul after it has mingled with the stream. The effluent will in no way interfere with fish-life in the stream.” As compared with the present process of chemical precipitation and sedimentation, the bacterial process presents the following advantages :—(a) It requires no chemicals; (b) It produces no offensive sludge, but only a deposit of sand or vegetable tissue which is free from odour; (c) It removes the whole of the suspended matter, instead of only about eighty per cent. thereof ; (d) It effects the removal of 51.30 per cent. of the dissolved oxidisable and putrescible matter, as compared with the removal of seventeen per cent. only, affected by the present chemical treatment ; (e) Further, the resultant liquid is entirely free from objectionable smell, and does not become foul when it is kept ; it further maintains the life of fish. ‘In their report a number of reasons are given, showing that it is unwise in the present state of our knowledge to recklessly condemn an effluent on bacteriological ground alone, without full knowledge of all the requirements of the case. In the attempt to treat sewage on biological lines, it is to be noted that the solution 28 WILLIAM M. HAMLET. of the suspended matter and even the partial destruction of putrescible matters by microbial agencies afforded sufficient ground for justifying the process, at all events as a preliminary measure. Whether this preliminary treatment is to be supplemented by further treatment, either by passing through coke-beds or by land irrigation, or by any other method, is a matter largely dependent on circumstances. In the present case there are practical points which first of all demand consideration, and although it may be most desirable to obtain an effluent chemically pure and bacteriologically above suspicion of danger, it is to be thought of that an effluent not altogether satisfactory in one or other, or even in both, of these respects may yet fulfil all necessary requirements without passing out of the range of practicability. In certain cases it may be imperative to obtain an effluent bacteriologicaily sound, but it does not follow that a similar result is urgently called for in other cases, as, for example, where an effluent is turned into a watercourse which is not used for drinking purposes, and which already may contain practically all the bacteria that are found in sewage.” The history of fermentation, putrefaction, and nitrification has latterly been so frequently repeated that I hesitate in doing much more than mention dates, general results, and the names of those whose researches have opened up for us the possibilities of sewage zymolysis. The earliest observer to perceive the low forms of life that play so important a part in the decomposition of animal matter, was Leewenhoeck,! who in 1675 was not a little astonished in getting glimpses of that nether world—invisible to the unassisted eye—that world of life we now recognise as bacteriology. I can only mention men’s names as the ‘stepping stones to higher things” in linking this seventeenth century science worker with the latest developments of this subject. 1 Leewenhoeck—Opera omnia, 1722. 2 Leewenhoeck 1675, Muller 1773, The Abbé Spallanzani 1777, Schulze 1836, Ehrenberg 1838, Schwann 1839, Dujardin 1841, Helmoltz 1843, Cohn 1858, Schroder and Von Dusch 1854, Davaine 1859, Pasteur 1862, Van Tieghem 1864, Schloesing and Mintz 1877, Beyerinck 1888, Wino- gradsky 1890, Warrington 1891, Oméliansky 1900. ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 29 Now, what is there in the nature of things to account for this process of putrefaction? The coke, like a sponge, is full of inter- stices and holds a large volume of atmospheric air, which is destined to play an important part in the process; carbon, as is well known, has the property of holding large volumes of gases; common charcoal can take up ninety times its own volume of ammonia gas. A fermentation is inaugurated in the sewage under these condi- tions, the sewage itself containing the micro-organism necessary for its own decomposition. Proteids break up, their nitrogen being changed into ammonia ; urea is transformed into ammonia carbonate ; sulphur is changed to hydrogen sulphide. Hydrogen is recombined to form methane ; carbon takes oxygen to appear again as the dioxide; while some of the nitrogen suffers differing degrees of oxidation, appearing as the lower oxides and sometimes is even reduced to free nitrogen. This change has been called the biological treatment of sewage, or the biolysis of sewage, (Scott-Moncrieff) ; or as I propose, I think, more correctly—the zymolysis of sewage. The fermentation- change known as putrefaction or decomposition, and tersely des- cribed by Duclaux in the following words:—“Whenever and wherever there is a decomposition of organic matter, whether it be the case of a herb or an oak, of a worm or a whale, the work is exclusively done by infinitely small organisms. They are the important, almost the only, agents of universal hygiene ; they clear away more quickly than the dogs of Constantinople, or the wild beasts of the desert, the remains of all that has had life; they protect the living against the dead. They do more; if there are still living beings, if, since the hundreds of centuries the world has been inhabited, life continues, it is to them we owe it.” The appearance and disappearance of nitrogen is remarkable. During many years experience in the examination and analysis of sewage and sewage effluents, I have been unable to find nitrites, and very often have failed to find any nitrous or nitric nitrogen at all. During some recent researches as to the true composition of sewage, it was decided to take samples of sewage at all hours 30 WILLIAM M. HAMLET. of the day and night. To do this an analyst had to be stationed at the Botany Sewage Farm for some consecutive days ; and as a result, Mr. Doherty made the discovery that at certain hours, nitrites regularly make their appearance, commencing at the early hours of the morning from daylight until ten o’clock in the forenoon. After that hour, they disappear for the rest of the day; again making their appearance next morning. The process of nitrification is no doubt accelerated by light and oxygen, although the nitrifying organisms do their work to some extent in the dark. Many reversible reactions go on in sewage, since as we know that in the process of oxidation of iron in air, ammonia is formed. Ammonia is converted into nitrous and nitric acids. Nitrous and nitric acids change back again into ammonia, while, in some cases even free nitrogen is formed ; but the sequence of changes that happen when human dejecta, along with considerable volumes of water flow into the sewage fermentation-tanks are, that ammonia free and loosely combined, is the main result ; and then, and then only, does the nitric fermentation take place, in two stages ; first the formation of ' nitrous nitrogen by B. nitrificans (nitrites), then a period of rest, and then, the final change into nitric nitrogen (nitrates), but, whether the changes are the immediate results of the bacteria themselves, or the result of enzymes secreted or elaborated by the organism, they are symbiotic changes of a remarkable character ; my opinion is, that asin the other processes of fermentation, the enzymes are the immediate cause of the breaking down of proteid matter. Notwithstanding the reproach cast upon Sydney by the revelations of her insanitary condition lately brought to light by the Plague in our midst, it should here be recorded that Mr. J. M. Smail, Engineer to the Metropolitan Board of Water Supply and Sewerage, and Mr. Davis, Chief Engineer for Sewerage Con- struction of the Public Works Department, have in looking 1 From Winogradsky’s researches two organisms are concerned in the process of nitrification, M. nitrificans, (Van Tieghem) and two in the process of de-nitrification, B. De-nitrificans a and £. ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 31 forward to the application of biological methods in dealing with the sewage of Sydney, put the process into active operation at the Botany Sewage farm, on an experimental scale, and at Rookwood on a real working scale; plans and models of the system I have now the pleasure of showing you to-night, through the kindness of Mr. Smail, and of Mr. R. R. P. Hickson, the Under Secretary for Public Works. As many other substances have been in use by different observers for filling the sewage tanks, Mr. Smail used ordinary sandstone and gravel from the Nepean River. At the Botany Sewage Works an iron tank is used as an experimental filter bed where the initiatory biological process is commenced. This tank is provided with a false perforated bottom, upon which the pebbles or stones rest, the tank being filled with crude sewage and the fermentation process allowed to proceed for four hours, the liquid then passes into the filters, of which there are two—one filled with fragments of coke, the other charged with small pieces of coal ; the tanks of coal and coke are so arranged that either one may be used at will, thereby testing the relative merits of each kind of material. The effluent is then run on toa bed of lucerne and domestic vegetables, whereby the manurial value can at once be estimated and practically put to use. One thing is thus proved, that whereas crude sewage soon clogs the land and renders the soil ‘ sewage sick,’ the effluent acts at once as a fertiliser, and a luxuriant crop of lucerne or vegetables is produced. The cause is not far to seek, for the effluent is rich in nitrates and ammonia, both compounds readily appropriated by the growing crops. The crude sewage has the following com- position on analysis. Mean of twenty-four samples taken every hour, 18-19 April, 1900 :— Total solids... a, ... 96 Parts per 100,000 Chlorine et cee mo LD ‘5 Free ammonia ... Bs. Toe baa fs m Albuminoid ammonia ... a we 45 \ Oxygen absorbed in four hours 5 ae va Nitrous nitrogen ue pe tOr2 53 35 Nitric nitrogen... 0 35 54 32 WILLIAM M. HAMLET. Composition of effluent from Coke Tank, Botany Sewage Farm (Scott-Moncrieff.) Mean of twenty-four samples taken every hour 18 and 19 April, 1900, corresponding in point of time with the entry of the crude sewage— Total solids... ae ... 44 parts per 100,000 Chlorine Es ar ho ie Bo 7 aI Free Ammonia... sie ee: ks ‘ Albuminoid ammonia ... sin OS a by Oxygen absorbed in four hours 1:5 i 7 Nitrous nitrogen abe ea Ot 3 4 Nitric nitrogen... _.... sue 20 -é ~s The purification here effected amounts to eighty-five per cent. based on the changes undergone by the nitrogenous matter, or seventy per cent. if based on the oxygen absorbed in four hours, which compares well with results obtained elsewhere. No sludge results: all the solid matter has undergone the fermentive change, and even such things as feathers, string, paper and banana skins are reduced to the liquid condition. Almost any solid bodies may be used for the packing of the filter beds : such as broken bricks, coke, cinders, clinkers, boulders, pebbles, charcoal, breeze, and even road-metal. I regret that I cannot give the results of puri- fication in tabular form upon a common basis of analysis. Scott- Moncrieff’s result, and the results obtained by Kenwood and Butler, are based on the ratio between the free and albuminoid ammonia, and both are good; while Dr. Clowes, estimates the oxygen absorbed, the percentage of improvement being showed by the following statement :— i (c —6) 100 C K = purification in per cents.; ¢=oxygen absorbed by the crude sewage ; b=oxygen absorbed by the effluent. The figures obtained by Clowes are as follows :— Average raw sewage... ... 5°28 parts per 100,000 Effluent from four-feet bed... 2°49 - Ve » primary six-feet bed 2°64 ss Fe 4 secondary six-feet bed 1°63 Ms iy Effective purification, equals fifty-one per cent. 1 All calculation as to the common chlorine basis is here avoided. ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 33 Another standard, suggested by Rideal, is the ratio between the oxidised and the unoxidised nitrogen. In this matter I feel assured that such confusing methods of comparing results will soon be amended and we shall be able to judge an effluent as we: now judge a potable water. This method of dealing with sewage has been termed a process. of: biolysis ; it may with reason be called the zymolysis of sewage, since the changes are brought about through the agency of fer- mentation. It is, in reality, the natural method of sewage puri- fication subject to control ; I would emphasise the latter phrase— purification subject to control—because, all the processes hitherto. known, have not been kept under control, but have been the ruin both of inventor and capitalist. This method, however, is both rational and natural, and man is but going back to ‘Nature his. dear old nurse,’ who has carried on the process and purified the dejecta of animal life during all these centuries: indeed, were it. otherwise, this world must have become but a huge charnel house. As it is, the micro-organisms of purification and nitrification have full action; antiseptics and disinfectants being wholly superfluous in fermenting the mixture of slops, kitchen waste, storm water” and dejecta, whereby the solids break up and pass into solution, gases being evolved. The liquid is then allowed to nitrify, with access of atmospheric air resulting in an effluent being produced which may be purified to a degree equal to some drinking waters. The process now being tried at Botany is intermittent, but there. is no reason why it should not, when worked properly, become continuous, requiring very little attention. Here then is a field eminently suited to the energies and capabilities alike of the chemist and the engineer; here also lies. the explanation of the reason why sewage farms were failures and could not be other than failures. Finally we have the end in view with regard to the disposal of city sewage, for if we must have the sewage carried out of our dwellings by the aid of a current of. water, and I admit it to be the easiest method for populous. centres, although not the easiest in country houses where, I still. C—May 2, 1900. 34 WILLIAM M. HAMLET. think, dry earth will have a long reign, then the zymolysis of sewage will become the only rational mode of solving, what has hitherto been a difficult and a costly problem. Let me in con- ’ clusion ask those amongst us here in Australia who are possessed 4 of wealth, leisure and qualifications, to lend their aid in the investi- gation of problems such as these. Original work is still needed, and it should be done by those who are unhampered by official routine, and duties that absorb the whole of their time and energy. EPILOGUE. Time was when this earth was but a crustless mass—a reeking nucleus of vortex motion. -Alons after, Herculean Gravity pulls the molecules together making for density, then comes cohesion, chemic combination and crystallisation, with life-giving Nitrogen, Oxygen, Carbon and the rest. There pass long ages of Geologic Twilight, and Life dawns— ‘Upon the firm opacious globe Of this round world, From Chaos and th’inroad of Darkness old.’ Man is evolved—product of organism and environment—attuned to the music of the spheres to dominate the world, who, finding gold to be a changeless object of beauty and his changeful life but of short duration, looks out about him, searching, first for a Stone, that may turn all the baser metals into precious gold, and then, for an Elixir that shall prolong his earth-life indetinitely— ‘A tincture Of force to flush old age with youth, or breed Gold, or imprison moonbeams till they change To opal shafts.’ Many centuries of fruitless toil are consumed in this pursuit ; and the alchemist, as he is called, finds out some things that were really useful for ends of lesser ambition, and so, based on these results, are laid the foundations of Medicine and of Chemistry. Skipping over the centuries—passing by the Medizval A ges—and calmly surveying our own times, we are beset by the problem of the concentration of peoples in cities, nay, we are compelled to concern ourselves, not so much in providing food for these populous ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 35 centres, that is a problem that will assert itself later on; as in dealing with the excretory products from dwellers in towns; a problem over which vast sums of money, and numberless lives have been wasted. Thus having learned by patient toil and tribulation, some lessons from ‘Immortal Nature’s ageless harmony ’ our studies lead us away from the Alchemy of Antiquity and we are confronted with those problems of Sanitation and the Public Health that call for prompt solution. With what success one of these problems shows promise of speedy and satisfactory treatment it has been my pleasure to indicate. 36 G. H. KNIBBS. On THE RELATION, in DETERMINING toe VOLUMES or SOLIDS, WHos& PARALLEL TRANSVERSE SECTIONS ARE n° FUNCTIONS OF THEIR POSITION ON |THE AXIS, BETWEEN THE NUMBER, POSITION, AND COEFFICIENTS OF THE SECTIONS, AND THE (POSITIVE) INDICES OF THE FUNCTIONS. By G. H. Kniss, F.R.A.8., Lecturer in Surveying, University of Sydney. [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, June 6, 1900. | . Problem defined. . General relation between indices, number and position of sections, and weight-coefficients. . Determination of the ratio of the m+1 weight-coefficients, when the number m of indices is one less than the number of values of the variable. . Number of indices greater than the number of values of the variable, diminished by unity. . Number of indices less than the number of values of the variable, diminished by unity. . Determination of the n—k=m weights. . Position of a single section. . Positions of two sections. . Limiting positions of two symmetrically situated sections. Two symmetrically situated sections and their conjugate indices. . Asymmetrical positions of two sections. . Three symmetrical sections, viz.,a middle and the terminal sections. . A middle section, and two other sections equidistant therefrom, all of equal weight. . Two terminal and one intermediate section. . General result of the method of finite differences. . General theory of symmetrically situated sections with sym- metrical weight-coefficients. . Examples of the application of the general formula. . The number of indices satisfied by a given number of symmetrical sections. . Manifold infinity of possible formule with symmetrical sections. VOLUMES OF SOLIDS AS RELATED TO TRANSVERSE SECTIONS. 37 1, Problem defined.—If a quantity 4,=/(z) be expressed by the equation A,=A+ B+ C2'+ Dat + ete............ (a); in which let us suppose the constants A, B, C, etc., have any finite value positive or negative including zero, and the indices Pp, g, and 7, etc., are in ascending order of magnitude and positive,? the integral op ae c Pere) oP 4+ —_ 244 ete Daal Gt will represent an area included between the curve (1), the axis z, and the limiting ordinates, z, and z, say, provided A, represents an ordinate: and similarly it will represent a volwme should that function denote the area of wy planes at right angles to the z axis. The volume will of course be that included between the parallel terminal planes, intersecting the axis at the limits of the variable, and the surface formed by the boundary of one of these, considered as generator, moving along the z axis at right angles thereto, and changing its area in terms of the function. Since the origin of z and the linear scale of the unit by which it is measured do not affect the degree, but merely alter the con- stants of the above expressions, viz. (1) and (2), these may be regarded as quite general in form. A may consequently be con- ceived as the ordinate, or as the area, for z=0, and V correspon- ingly as the area or the volume for z=1; provided that the limits of the integral be 0 and 1, and the constants be suitably determined. Hence, subject to the restriction defined, unity may be substituted throughout for the quantities z, 2”, 24, etc., in (2). Let a, 6, c, ete., represent any proper fractions in ascending order of magnitude; and a, f, y etc. any series of weight-coeffici- ents” to be multiplied into the values of the function, for values of z equal to those fractions; and for brevity let the sum of the 1 Negative indices give a series of hyperbolas if A, be regarded as an ordinate, the asymptotes being the axis z and the ordinate forz=0. We consider only the positive indices, that is the parabolas. 2 We shall call these ‘ weight-coefficients’ because they express the relative importance of the sections. 38 G. H. KNIBBS. coefficients be denoted by o: 1.¢. let a 1,if P= wow, p=. P Hence obviously e = _? =m andthe reciprocal Toysis & 0, that isa Jz loge p p = Ro | MW ~~ o . 7 44 G. H. KNIBBS. to solve. If, for particular values of p and q, identical values for a and also for 6 can be derived, they will mark points on the z axis satisfying both equations ; and the mean of the values of the function at these points will be the mean of all values of the function (19) from 0 to 1.’ We consider first values symmetrically situated with respect to the middle point on the axis. Put therefore a=4t—€and b=3+€ oe. (21) so that a+6=1; then expanding (20) and dividing by 2, _ 1 Pp) 2 pp-D(p-2)(p-3) ¢ Be 3 (a? +6?) = Sree hae ia ae &+ 4+ ete. “Saree p of course having any positive value whatever. If be fractional the series is infinite but convergent, since both the coeflicients and the powers of €, € being a proper fraction, are convergent. If p be integral the series is finite, having p/2 terms in €, if » be even; or (p —1)/2 if p be odd. Or again, writing 6=1-—-a, expanding, and dividing by - we have, when 7 is odd, i a ss Petia ase agit, 2 aa (23), 2 3 | p(p + 1) and when p is even ae = ee) D) = PoE gy POD) pet = ae 2 | 3! p php that is, the equation for any even integer is of the same degree as that for the odd integer next above it, as is obvious also from (22). Since also if p be 1, € or a may have any value from 0 to 3, it is at once evident that two equations can be simultaneously satisfied as long as the index of one is unity. Therefore Prop. (¢). If one of the positive indices in the original function be unity, then always two points on the axis, symmetrically situated with respect to its centre, may be taken, so that the mean of the values of the function at those points, will be the mean value of the . Junction. In other words a “two-term formula” will always apply in such a case.} 1 This result was obtained for prismoidal solids, in which the sectional area is a quadric function of the z coordinate (i.e. p=1, q=2) by Echols, Annals of Mathematics 1894; I have not, however, seen his article. See . also, “ Prismoidal Formula and Earthwork,” by T. U. Taylor, 1898— Wiley and Sons, New York. VOLUMES OF SOLIDS AS RELATED TO TRANSVERSE SECTIONS. 45 The following computed values of a are shewn by Curve No. 2, Fig. 1, on which they are indicated by dots. Fig. 1. pot ae oo on woe H rat G247\ i eee Abscisse =D ‘ex vais oe Pp Curve 1.—The ordinates indicate the distance from the initial line or plane at right angles to the axis, to the point thereon where the line or plane has a mean value corresponding to the index p; the total length of the axis being considered as unity. Curve 2.—Graph of the function aP — (1—a)P — 2/(p+1)=0; p being the independent and athe dependent variable: a will be the distance from the terminals of the axis of two lines or planes satisfying the corres- ponding indices, which constitute the abscisse of the graph. Curve 4 —Middle and terminal sections, the indices 2 and 4 being made conjugate by suitable coefficients. Curve 5.—Shewing the relation between index and the position of an intermediate section, when it and the terminal sections have equal weight. 9. Limiting positions of two symmetrically situated sections.— Let a=f(p), in which gp, or w in (5), is to be regarded as the inde- pendent variable; then for symmetrically situated sections, a real of and positive value for a may be found by suitable methods’ from 1 For very large values of p, we may put, at any rate for a first approximation, 2 Bias 461 ae i= og ery 46 G. H. KNIBBS. the equation D Pp |= P= eee Vee) pt+l Restricting the consideration to real positive values between 0 and 4 it will be found that for p= 1/o ,7 a=0'1613782; forp=o, a=0; while for p=1, a may have any value from 0 to4; but for all other positive values of p, the ordinates a corresponding to the abscisse p are terminated by a continuous curve, the values for p=0 and p=1 being respectively about 0:1613782 and 0:1997088, and for p= about 2471 reaching a maximum of about 0:2123179. II.— Positions of two symmetrically situated sections.® Index. a Index. a Index. a ‘00 “VOlaneo, 2°45 -2123160 6 ‘1880587 ‘10 1674245 2°46 lie 7 ‘1796675 25 1752683 2°47 ‘2123178 8 13934 1X0) °1857300 2°471 Pa 1) 9 "1637491 “0 ‘1974990 2°48 -2123176 10 “5670 1:00 -1997088° 2°49 2123164 ll 1503130 1:00 also 0 to 0'5 2°50 "2123147 12 "1444266 1:10 2016800 2°60 ‘2122537 13 1390213 1:50 -2075308 3°00 "21132498 14 "1340444 2:00 ‘2113249° 4 -20561927 15 "1294440 2:40 PPA D OT4029" oO ‘0000000 Nott.— b=1-a. log—!w denoting the number of which @ is the logarithm. Since a is numerically always less than 0:3, the powers of a are rapidly convergent. For p=9'5, a is about 0°16; hence to 7 places of figures, and for p equal 10 or more, a? = 0: therefore bP = 2/(pt+1), from which the above formula is derived. Again, for exceedingly small values of p, bP will be much nearer unity than a?; hence we may commence the approximation by assuming that a? = 2/(p+1)—1, and put afterwards the deduced value of bP in the place of unity, Other cases may be calculated by (22) or (28), or by such methods as will readily suggest themselves to computers. 2 Strictly for p =0, a is indeterminate ; but as p becomes very small a approaches the limiting value given. 3 The seventh place of figures is generally uncertain. 4a° = 1 and a may have any value whatsoever: in itself it is therefore indeterminate. In the case considered however it really has a definite limit which may be found as follows :— 2 3 a? + (1-a)? = aP + 1-pa[1 + (1 —p) + (p+ 4) tete.] = 2(1-p tp? -) VOLUMES OF SOLIDS AS RELATED TO TRANSVERSE SECTIONS. 47 From these results, and the figure representing them, it is evident that :— Prop. (f). Zwo symmetrically situated sections cannot be at a greater distance from the terminals of the axis than about 02123179, the length of the axis being regarded as unity; at that distance p and q are respectively 1 and about 2-471, and no other values can be satisfied. Since the curve in Fig. | is intersected by the ordinate for p= 1, at the distance of about 0:1997088 from the axis of abscissx; for values of a greater than this, and less than the maximum, two indices greater than unity can be satisfied, together with unity Rejecting the second and higher powers of p, since it is extremely small, as inappreciable, and transposing we have aP = 1-p(2-a a — etc.) Taking logarithms, and again rejecting the 2nd and higher powers of p Ola eS Sle as - © ~ ete.) Dividing both sides by - p, applying the operator log—', transposing, and dividing the numerator and denominator of the left hand number by a, wehave 1i4+a+a%+ete. = log, 2=logy 2 @ =7-3890561 p. being pee seduliss of common logarithms; so that + +a +a? + ete. = 63890561 a from which ais found by suitable methods of approximation to be :1613782. 5 In general a is of course indeterminate and may have any value whatsoever. The curve studied has a limiting value for p=1, which may ‘be found by putting 1 + A for the index. Rejecting powers of h gi th + ptth _ 4 (1+ hloga) + b(1 + hlog b) = 2/(2+h) = 1-4h ‘from which after putting 6 = 1- a, remembering that log (l-a) = ily Be Oh of = eto ee dividing by ah, and arranging the terms in the order of their numerical magnitude, we obtain BU PE arena fe ast eee Ge Sa ae 2a 2 23) 34 n (n+1) from which by suitable methods the limiting value of a may be found. The convergency of the first three terms is very slight, consequently in “practical computation it is advantageous to tabulate the sum of these -three at least. See § 16 hereinafter. 6 Both roots arez +% V3. 73+ V(v5%,-4). 83+ V(v,5,-3). 2 ar GO, = 1 48 G. H. KNIBBS. itself; while for less values of a one index will be less than unity and the other greater than 4°7345; inasmuch as this ordinate meets the curve again for a value of p of about that amount. Consequently :— Prop. (g). Ifthe symmetrically situated sections be at a distance of 0:1997088 from the terminals of the axis, considered as of unit length, only two indices can be satisfied viz., p=1 and q=4'°7345. 10. Two symmetrically situated sections and their conjugate indices.—In Fig. 1, any line drawn parallel to the axis of abscissze at a less distance than 0°2123179 cuts it in two points, and cuts also the heavy vertical line, viz. the ordinate for p=1. For any definite value of a let the abscissz of the intersections be called conjugate. Then the limits are as follows :— a>0:1997088 ) Lesser { 1 to 2:471; Greater ( 2:471 to 4:7345 a <0:1997088 index )) Oto 19 index | 4:7345 to w» It happens that the indices 2 and 3 are conjugate to one another, a having the value in each case 4—4.,/3, or 0:2113249, conse- quently a “two-term formula” applies not only to the prismoid and prismatoid, but to figures and solids whose ordinates or right- sections are cubic functions of the distances along the axes. Or Prop. (h). If two symmetrically situated sections be at a dis- tance of not more than 0:2123179 from the terminals of the axis, considered as of wnit length, then in general the index 1 together with two conjugate indices, one greater, and one less than 2-471 can be satisfied. ' Let w and v denote the conjugate indices and A, and B, the corresponding symmetrical positions, then for the function A,=A+Bz+ C2"+ De we shall have V Se (Ani Bee aeceetrs (24), And further as a special case :— Prop. (i). Iftwo sections be taken 0:2113249 from the terminals of the axis, considered as of unit length, then the indices satisfied will be 1, 2, and 3. That is to say a symmetrical two-term formula applies to a solid whose right-sectional area is a cubic VOLUMES OF SULIDS AS RELATED TO TRANSVERSE SECTIONS. 49 function of the distance along its axis; the same is true also for an area, where the ordinate is similarly a cubic function.’ If A, and B, denote the values of the ordinates or sections at 0):2113249 and 0-7886751, then whenever A,=A+B24+ 02+ De we shall have Sav ra! epee 25) leslie Ade (25). 11. Asymmetrical positions of two sections.—Since the number of fractions is the same as the number of indices they cannot both be arbitrarily taken: Prop. (a)§ 2. Let the weight unity be assigned to the section at a; so that the weight of that at 6d will be relative thereto: we shall then have from (5) a? + BbP= we , and a+ B= =F SRSA (26) so that the condition to be satisfied is (1 +p) (a? + B6") = (1 +q) (a2 + fb4) ......... (27); as might be anticipated this does not lead to simple relations. The only cases that appear to be worth consideration are a=0, and 6=1, the former involving the determination of the value and weight of 6: the latter the value of a and weight either of aor 6. If a=0, then its powers are also zero, putting its weight =1, we have at once from (27) ae 1+ Ey ? ; or logarithmically log 6 _ log(1 +p) — log(1 +9) (28) 1 55 q Op p and when 0 is obtained 1 1 b= Paes.) TOCA a eET Woke ae (29) Putting A, for the initial ordinate or area, and 54, for that at a the formula for the area or volume will be yaa 58 (Lot BB) Sonne (30) 1 + and the integral solutions up to the fourth power are contained © in the table hereunder :— I1I.—Position and coefficients of second section, the first berny the wnitial section. 1 A less general proof of this is given by 'l’. U. Taylor, op. cit., pp. 99 — 100 D—June 6, 1900. 50 G. H. KNIBBS. Indices. °= Distance along 4 _ weight-coefficients of B, General _ 1 axis. coefficient (1 + B) 2 1 4% or 0:56250000 8 or 80000000 0-1111111 1 2 2 ,, 06666667 3 » 20000000 0:2500000 1 3 4¥2,, 0°7071068 l+V72 ~ ,, 2°4142136 0:2928933 1 4 y%,, 07368063 1/(22-1),, 21114303 0:3213952 2 3 3 ,, 0:7500000 1 ,, 1:4545455 0-4074074 ee Onto oon 14 », 1:2500000 0:4444444 3 4 4 ,, 0:8000000 a » 0°9541985: O-5117187 These, and the more extended results in Table IIIa., are the 6 curves shewn on Fig. 2. The results of Table I. are also included for completeness: these last correspond to p= 0. TITa.—Position of second section the first being the initial section. Indices q. Index p 0 1 2 5) + 5 6 Hf 0 -3679 5000 5774 6300 6687 6988 7230 7430 1! ‘5000 6066 6667 7071 7368 7598 7784 7937 2 5774 6667 7165 7500 7746 7937 8091 8219 3 ‘6300 7071 7500 7788 8000 8165 8298 8409 Indices q. Index p 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 0 ‘7598 7743 7868 -7978 8076 8163 8241s ssaI2 1 8067 8178 8274 8360 8435 8503 8564 8620 2 8327 8420 8501. 8572 8636 8693 8745 8792 3 8503 8584 8654 8717 8773 8823 8868 8909 The above results are of course decimal throughout. If on the other hand we make bd = | and determine a, the relations are less simple. As before the weight-coefficient of the latter, viz. a, may conveniently be taken as unity. This gives then, instead of (26) 1 1+£, Band ai+ B= + P au sand a-Si fee ; glee l+p l+gq fe) consequently a can be found only by solving the equation op PUL 2) ek ee (32) q(1 + p) q(l +p) and then f from B= =} 1-(+p)ar f= 7 1 1-(1 +a} hee (33) VOLUMES OF SOLIDS AS RELATED TO TRANSVERSE SECTIONS. 51 The integral solutions up to the third power inclusive are exhibited in Table IV. hereunder. IV.—Positions of first section, the second being the terminal section. Indices. a=Distance along 6 = coefficient General coefficient p 4g axis. of Bo 1/(1+ 8) + 1 0-2500000 0:5000000 ‘6666667 1 eee. 03353000 0:3333333 0:7500000 hee 0:3660254 0:2679492 0:7886751 ee) 0:4215352 0°1692577 0:8552434 Dae nA 0:4472136 0:2000000 0:8333333 The formula for volume or area will of course be v= el BA Talg te /6)8)eoaeease (34) 1+ 6 A, denoting the area or ordinate at a, and 4, that at the terminal. For p=1, g=2, we may instead of (30) and (34) write V=12(A,+ 3B) =42 (3Az+ Bp)......... (25)? A, denoting as before the initial section or ordinate: this reciprocal symmetry does not extend to other cases. Some of the formule of III. and IV. may be expressed in the following forms :— Ps 7 — 1 :— a + 8B, ,) AN ace 35a)? ek: + BB ) oe p=2 4; q>= fi V=ea(dA | i BS } in which the suffix indicates the distance along the axis from the aAend. By means of (28), (29), (32) and (33) it is easy to develope _ similar expressions to these last ; they would however probably be of no practical moment, and are not here further considered. 1 The equations equal to zero, and the roots are as follows :— p-q a Equation. 8 Equation. Values of aand 8 1.2 a?-4a+4=0; g=1-20 =4(1-30%);a=4; @=3 123 ge ee ot 40 4") a=4(V3-1); Meant ale 2.3 a°—$a?+3=0; 8=3 1-8a’) =3(1—4a9); a =1,(1+ V3); B= ase (77 - 8V83) 2 Kinkelin’s formula.—Grunert’s Archiv., Bd. xxx1x., pp. 181-186, 1862. 3 Puller’s formule. See ‘ Erweiterung der Prismatoidformel.’— Zeit. fiir Vermess., Bd. xxix., p. 36, January 1900. 52 G. H. KNIBBS. 12. Three symmetrical sections. viz. a middle and the terminal sectuons.—Turning to the case of three sections, obviously the simplest possible condition in regard to their position is,—a=0, b=4,c=1. If further we make their weights symmetrical, a and y may each be unity, and then we can determine f: this would be the simplest possible solution in regard to the weight-coefficients. Equation (5) thus becomes, keeping the fraction 6 general, l —1 pw-—) +255 =0 mane (36) from which if b= 43, — »)? 9 ee ga USP ee (37) (l+p)—2? 2? —(p% 1) from which values of 6 may be readily computed. The following table, giving the values for.a considerable range; is the basis from which the curve £ in Fig 2 is plotted. The general coefficient will be 1/(2 + 8), see (38) hereinafter. V.— Weight-coefficients for the middle-section, the weights of initial and terminal sections being unity. Index 1 Index J Index 1 Pp p 2+) p B (2+) p p (2+ 8) 00 O 1:01 5:1494 +13987 4 4:3636 -15714 0-1 31°884* -02951 1:10 4:9224 +14446 5 4:9931 -14444 0-2 17-913* -05022 1:2 47176 +14886 5-382 5-174 -13939 0-3 12:516* 06889 1:3 45517 +15263 6 5-6140 13134 0-4 98358 08449 15 4:3060 -15858 7 6:4exact -11905° 0-5 8-24261-09763 2:0 4:exact (166672 8 7:2461 -10815 0-6 7:1934 :10877 2:40 3-9346 -16850 9 81594 -09843 0:7 64554 -11827 2-45 3-9337 -16853 10 9-0977 -09010 0-8 5:9122 -12639 2:458 3:93364 -16853 11 10-0589 -08292 0:9 5:4993 13334 25 3-9341 -16852 12 11-0350 -07671 0:99 5:2063 -13877 2 39387-16839 13 12-0205 :07133 6 1:00 5:1741° 13939 3:0 4:exact :16667° 14 13-0119 -06661’ Since 8 may have any value whatever for p=1, any value of 6 greater than 3:933647 will satisfy the index unity together with two conjugate indices, as is evident from the 6 curve on Fig. 2. Consequently 14+8V2; 2 Really indeterminate, the curve crosses at this ordinate ; 3 Exactly +; + More exactly 3933647; 5 Exactly 1; 6 Exactly 42; 7 For p=, B=na-1. VOLUMES OF SOLIDS AS RELATED TO TRANSVERSE SECTIONS. 53 100; descr ee ee un ur EEE eae esis teceeetes teeta i — t HH : T HH ay 1m ng ; . T o rn i ot ras eT to 3 Sao besee p eee Hy o i mast ee] Soe Peo ease TK oF H 4 paaen b Seeceeeer: ane eees i r 1 oot 4}= | 2458 (2 Curve 5382 Ordinates -B ; Abscissa = 2, & Curve Ord.:d; Absc.» b Curves.—The ordinates denote the distance of the second section of of the axis from the first and initial section—the whole axis being unity— corresponding to pairs of values of the index, one series of values being the abscisse. 7 _B Curve.—The ordinates shew the weight that must be assigned to a middle section, that of the terminal sections being unity, in order to satisfy any index and its conjugate. Prop. (j). Two terminal sections and a middle section will on general satisfy the index wnity together with two conjugate indices the one greater and the other less than 2-458; these indices are dependent upon the coefficient assigned to the middle section, which coefficient can in no case be less than 3:-988647, viz., than its value at the critical index 2-458. The value 1] is conjugate to 5-382, corresponding to the coefficient f=5:174; consequently at that point p= 1, g=5°382 and no other index can be satisfied. Again if p=1and q=2°'458, the coetiicient B will be 3:933647 and no other values can be satisfied. Again 2 and 3 are conjugate indices, and correspond to the weight- coefficient 4: therefore so q 54 G. H. KNIBBS. Prop. (k). If the coefficient 4 be assigned to the middle section, the indices satisfied will be 1, 2 and 3, and none other. | The formula for volume or area in the case above considered, and when the original function A,=A + Bz + C2 + Dz, u and v as before being conjugate ; is :— 1 V= om B. (Ay + BB, + Op)eees (38) the subscript 0 denoting terminal sections, and ma middle section. 13. A middle section, and two other sections equidistant there- from, all of equal weight.—In this case, if each section have unit weight, (5) reduces to 3 1 Ao) ra pp trees: (39) which is clearly analogous to (236) § 9, and may similarly to (22) be written P(p—1) 2, plp— 1) (p— 2) (p— 3) 31 aS © re ors BP Clo pak | oe By these equations the results in Table VI. are calculated ; the curve is shewn in Fig. 2, Curve 3. VI.—Position of two sections equidistant from a middle-section. Index. Index. Index. a a a *1121500' 3 ‘1464466? 10 °1221566 "25 1221114 + 1439328 ll ‘1185688 5, 1295311 5 "1406342 12 "1151021 l "1391506? 6 1370589 13 1117833 1°5 "1442089 7 "1333554 14 1086176 2 "1464466° 8 12959804 15 ‘1056064 2449 "1469624 9 1258477 o) ‘0000000 Note.—b = 4; ¢c=1-a. The coefficient of each section is unity. 1 The limiting value may be found as previously shewn: the equation s 2 n 1S jog, a-—- - “ -.,. =“ — ete, = = 3 + log, 9 = Se aeosane n Mt 2 2 The equation for the limiting value is :— Qa an —~q¢+ 2.+2— + ,,. b= ete. = 21 2—2 = — ‘4034264 O10 Re Gi Oe oe org Goin 8 >? Bee See § 16 hereinafter for a fuller consideration of these limits. 3 Both roots, that is for p= 2 and p=8 are the same, viz., a=4—4 v2. 4 For seven places of figures, we may, after p=7, put a? =O, conse- quently bP = 3/(p +1) -1/2?. VOLUMES OF SOLIDS AS RELATED TO TRANSVERSE SECTIONS. 55 From the nature of the curve we see that, in general, three indices may be satisfied, when a middle and two other sections equidistant therefrom are taken, each having equal weight, two of these indices however will be conjugate. For the same index- values the sections are nearer to the terminals than in the case of two symmetrically situated sections. The result may be summed up in the two following propositions :— Prop. (l.) When a middle section and two others equidistant therefrom, all of equal weight are taken, the latter can never be at a greater distance than ‘1469624 of the length of the axis from its . terminals: at that distance the only indices that can be satisfied are 1 and about 2-449. Remembering that the indices 2 and 3 are conjugate, we have also the second proposition :— - Prop. (m.) For sections nearer the terminals of the axis than this limiting value, the index 1 and two conjugate indices may be satisfied the one greater and the other less than 2°449; and if the distances from the terminals be -1464466 the conjugate indrces satisfied, together with 1, will be 2 und 3. The formula for area of volume satisfying the function A,=A+ Be+ Cz + Dz’, u and v being conjugate, is Vics VeitAn a Bae Ole as: (41). 14. T'wo terminal sections and one intermediate section.—Hqua- tion (5) in this case reduces to The values of a, 8 and y are all at our disposal, hence there is a three-fold infinity of solutions for 6”. Since the solution loses no generality by making £6 unity, inasmuch asa and y merely become the ratios of the weight-coefficients of the terminal sections to the intermediate section, which is all that is required, the above equation becomes simply l+a—py [ae ne Oe LI e@eeeseeoeeees bP = ie (42a) 56 G. H. KNIBBS. which it is sometimes convenient to put in the form bo (L + p) + py = li tral eee (426,7 Thus the solution for 6 is log b= | log (1 + a-py)-—log (1 + p) 1 = =| log (1 +a — py) — log (1+@q) ; = etc...(43) In (42) and (43) the only solutions of utility are those which give values of 6 lying between 0 and 1: it is moreover convenient to employ only positive values of a and y. Hence the conditions of limitation are, ( being unity, —1<(a—py)

, viz., those satistying p = 2,q = 4 in Table VII., when 6 = i: if then we calculate the values for b corresponding to different values of p, we shall find that for p = +2; 6 = i, and for p = 526 = 0. Between p = 2 and p= 4 6 is greater than 4; and between p = about # and p = 2 less than 4 :—see Curve 4, on Fig. 1, which exhibits the whole curve between the indicated limits. Hence, with the coefficients adopted, the function A,=A+ Bo+ Cz’ + Dz would have been satisfied, wu, v, and w being the three conjugate indices. From the figure-referred to—Curve 4, Fig. 1—it is evident that w and v, or v and w, may become identical for a particular value of b: so also for particular weights the whole three may become identical. If, for example the coefficient be unity for each of the three sections, and the position of 0 is alone to be deter- mined, we shall have from (5) or from (42a) Since 6 can neither be greater than unity, nor negative, the limits of p are 4 and 2, the corresponding limits of b being 1 and 0; hence no values outside these can be satisfied. Further since within the limits there is one and only one value of 6 corresponding to any definite value of p, and vice versa, only one value of p can be satisfied. Hence the function in such a case is reduced to Ape Agee wai and the formula for area or volume to ert 27 HN tects Jo atte ONG) Ne Seen (45) The following table contains sixteen values of b between the indicated limits. | 58 G. H. KNIBBS. VIII.—T'wo terminal sections and one intermediate, all of equal weight. Index. b Index. b Index. b Index. b ‘5 —-1:00000 9 54484 13 £:40049 7 #£«-27459 6 80047 1:0 -50000 14 #«:37150 \1730ReezaGan aif 68165 1:1 °46289 1:5 +34200 ~ S-OReeee ees 8 60240 1:2 :43042 1:6 -:31041 2:0 -00000 The curve is shewn in Fig. 1, see Curve 5. The general results of this section may be summed up as follows : Prop. (n). When the weights of three sections, viz., two terminal and one intermediate in a definite position, are deduced se as to satisfy two indices, a third conjugate to these will in general be satisfied: two of the indices, or all three, may, with particular values for the weight-coeficients, become identical. 15. General result of the method of finite differences.—If the axis z be divided into n equal parts, and sections be taken at the terminals and points of section, the areas of these may be repre- sented by the n + 1 ordinates thereat. It is always possible to draw through the n+ 1 ordinate-terminals a curve of the nth degree, so that if the order of the surface is really representéd by that curve, the indices in the original function viz., p, g, 7, etc., are merely 1, 2, 3,...m. By the calculus of finite differences it is shewn that the volume or the area, may be readily expressed in terms of the first rank of differences, and n, the number of parts into which the axis is divided. To a curve or surface of the sixth degree the equation is, y denoting the first ordinate, and A'y, A‘y, etc., the first rank of differences, nythn? A'y+;(2n* — 3n?) Alyt se(n* - 4n* +407 Ay Va 2 +745(6n° — 45n* — 110n* — 90n* Ary ~~ na \ + rede (2Qn® — 24n® + 105n* — 200n? + 14407) Ary + soto (127 —210n® + 1428n° — 4725n* + T672n* — 5040n’) Avy + ete. This may be recast in terms of the ordinates themselves by observing (46) that the coefficients thereof, connecting them with the differences, follow the law of binomial development ; that is, VOLUMES OF SOLIDS AS RELATED TO TRANSVERSE SECTIONS. 59 n(n — 1) 2! so that we have only to insert the proper line of coefficients from A'y = Yn = NY, 1 any Ue —€@C, .....0- (47) Pascal’s triangle and reduce. In this way the following formule are obtained. IX.— Weight-coefficients with terminal and equidistant inter- mediate sections. 42(A,+B,) =42(A,+4B,4+C,) =} 2 (A, pCi.) =o52(7,+382B+120+32D+7£,) = gts 2(194,+75B8+500+50D+75#+ 19F,) = gin (414,4+216B4+270 + 272D+27F +216 F+41G,) The deduction of formule for volumes or areas by this method does not fully reveal the sphere of their legitimate application. For example the first formula in IX. is legitimate only when the sectional-area linearly changes with the distance along the axis : the second formula is deduced on the necessary assumption that the sectional area is a quadratic function of the axial distance ; it proves to be absolutely correct also when that. area is a cubic function. The third formula is derived by assuming that the sectional area function is cubic: it is a good approximation, even when the function is quartic, but is not exact, since it involves an |< Weddle’s”” rule is merely an approximation. The exact expression in difference-terms is V=2(yt+ 8A¥y + 43 Ally + 4 Atily =f 41 Aivy + TN Vy + AA) If, in this, the coefficient #2, be changed into #2,, and if moreover the proper coefficient of D is diminished by ,*2,, that is if 22° be put for 272 in the above formula, then the formula may be simplified into Weddle’s. approximation, and written V=352(4.+ 5B+ C+5D+ E+ 5F+ G) The statement in the Encyclopedia Britannica 9° Hdit. xv1., 22, would be less liable to mislead if it read ‘“‘approximate formula for the area”’ instead of ‘‘ formula for the approximate area.” The statement that the formula is derived in the manner indicated is moreover inaccurate. It is obtained by a purely arbitrary proceeding. Prof. Johnson’s statement, in his ‘‘ Theory and Practice of Surveying,” p. 610 Edit. 1887, that, if the coefficient 43, be changed in the manner indicated, Weddle’s rule may be obtained, is also not accurate. The expression is not exact even when the sixth difference is zero. 60 G. H. KNIBBS. alteration of 3+5 in the coefficient’ of z* We pass on therefore to the consideration of the general theory of symmetrical and symmetrically weighted sections. 16. General theory of symmetrically situated sections with symmetrical weight-coefficients.—The general theory of the relation of indices, sectional positions, and weight-coefficients is sufficiently indicated in § 2 —§ 6: it is proposed now to consider only the case where both the weight-coefficients and the sections are symmetri- cally disposed with reference to the middle-section, the first and last being at the terminals of the axis. Equation (5) then takes the following form, viz. xe (YB seal On Aes + ee PEM Gs (48) nm being the number of parts into which the axis is divided, so that including the terminals there are n+ 1 sectional points. When vn is odd, & has the values 0, 1, 2,...4 (7-1), that is there are $(n + 1) terms: but when even, 0, 1, 2...4 n, that is there are 4(n+ 2) terms. It is important to remember in the latter case that the final value of the weight-coefficient is one-half its proper value ; that is the coefficient to be applied to the middle section is double that in the formula: in other words if «’ be the final weight-coefficient in the formula, 2x’ will be the proper weight- coetiicient. From (48) it is obvious, as we have before seen, that for p=0 and p = 1, the equation is satisfied, whatever the values of x, & or n, since in either case each terin is zero, and the expression becomes simply a0 + 60+ etc. = 0. Nevertheless, regarding each term as a function of p, it is represented by a continuous curve, whose abscisse are the values of p, and whose ordinates for p=0+ dp and p=1 + dp are perfectly definite. This we proceed to demon- strate. Writing either £/n or | —k/n, as K, we have 1 If the coefficient E in the term Ez* is essentially positive it gives a slight excess in volume or area: the proper coefficient in the expression of that quantity being 1 Hz°, while the formula gives 11 Hz°. If H be small the difference ,1, Hz may often be negligible. VOLUMES OF SOLIDS AS RELATED TO TRANSVERSE SECTIONS. 61 K+ = KP (1 +log Kdp)......... (49); the logarithm being of course Napierian, we have also 2 2 2dp = Seely Hy usc ea 50 pt+dp+ 1 p+l ” (p+1) oy For brevity let the expressions of the type (48), but not multiplied by weight-coefficients (x), be denoted by (at .2): then remem- n bering that 1) k kp 1 eee en (NOs se ste 51 log ( = = z etc (51) we have from equations (48) to (51), eee ahi aE a) aD) ep |. 2 =| loos ee ee eh 7) lee | ee al k ke? 2 et CUCM et ee AD er Di ( n 21? ote.) + as fe (2) which is quite general. If now in passing from p to p + dp the function F(p.k/n. 2) is continually zero, we must have SR Ne aa cd k? 2 =e ete.) — — =, (00 4 o, BA me (Oe Dae 3n° ete.) (ei ee) that is, the quantity in the larger brackets in (52) must be zero. This last equation determines the values of k/n in terms of p ; when p =0, it becomes ;— ree In olon. wnt and when p= 1 ;— ape we ike stn 1 i Nn. t expressions which can readily be transformed so as to suit the exigencies of computation with respect to convergency etc., and which are the basis of values already found for such limits. It is now evident that the graph of the function F(p.k/n. 2)=0 is of the type shewn by heavy lines on Fig. 1, viz., the two lines whose abscissz are 0 and 1, and the curve numbered 2. . When however &/n is constant, and only p is variable, the curve is of very different form, as may be seen in Fig. 3. In this, curve 6 is the graph of 2/(p+1); curves 7, 8, and 2 of | (A/n)P + (1 —k/n)P} in which the fraction has the values 4, 3, and 4 ie ‘ i 62 G. H. KNIBBS. respectively. The ordinates are identical for p=0, 1, and oo for all values of k/n, and since in (48) the coefficient « is multiplied into the term 2/(p+1) as well as the two other terms, it is evident that a series of terms of the type (48), satisfying any system of values of p, will always satisfy also the special values 0, 1 and « .! It may be remarked in regard to the k/n curves, that if for certain abscisse, p> 1, their ordinates be greater than those of the 2/(p+1) curve, then for sufficiently large values of p, they will become equal to the corresponding ordinates of the latter, and ultimately less than them. Thus the graphs make it obvious that the differences of the ordinates of the 2/(+1) curve and the others vary differently with p, excepting, as already indicated for p=0, 1, and o; and therefore also that, by combining the proper number of curves, with suitable changes in their parameters, any number of given indices may be satisfied. It is moreover also evident, both from algebraic considerations, and from the graphs, that by properly determining the coefficients, at least as many different indices may be satisfied, 1 included, as there are terms in (48). We shall shew later that a larger number may be satisfied. When » = 1, that is when there are only terminal sections, p = 0 and 1 only can be satisfied : we have already seen that when n = 2, that is when there are two terminals and a middle section, the values p=0, 1, 2 and 3, may be satisfied, the coefficient of the middle section being 4, The case is instructive: equation (48), reduced, becomes 5 Sal aN gee at 54 2? —(p +1) ( ) 1 For solids »=0 represents a cylinder ; »=Oto 2 conoids, the meridian curves of which are outwardly concave, at the limit » =2 becoming a cone; -p=2 to o represent conoids whose meridian curves are convex outwards. At the limit p= 0, it cannot be said that a real solid is represented. A,= Bz” is astraight line for z=0 to z=1, coinciding with the axis itself, at z=1+ ds it becomes an infinite plane at right angles to the axis. VOLUMES OF SOLIDS AS RELATED TO TRANSVERSE SECTIONS. 63 which, if we make 6 - 2, satisfies these last mentioned values of p.1 This fact, viz., that certain values of the weight-coefficients may satisfy other indices than those which are used to determine them, will be found to have a wider applicability than is immediately evident: in general the indices other than 0 and 1, which are satisfied by any system of weight-coefficients may be called conjugate, as hereinbefore. For brevity let Pe. = nie | (k)nyP + (nv — bP/n® } z « ke + (n — kp } HE SS(05) and similarly in regard to Q,, ,, etc.; the capital letter corres- ponding to that denoting the index, while the subscript k is to be the same integer as k. Then the equations to be satisfied are SCIP) = ITD ae 1) (OS aA aes nbs (56) « having the values a, , y, etc., and the limits for xP being 0 to 4(n+1) when m is odd, and 0 to (n+ 2) when mn is even. Remembering that the number of sections is independent of the number of indices in any series, and that the solution does not lose generality by making a=1, we have from (48) and the last two equations, BS (p+1) Py - Qn? } +y{(p+l)P,- QnP i +...+(p FSO oc cce (57) and similar expressions in which q,Q,,, etc. are substituted for p,P,,; the number of terms in addition to the last or absolute term being now the same as the number of weight-coefficients to be evaluated, viz. 2/2 if m be even, (n—1)/2ifnbeodd. By means of these last equations, viz. (57), any case can be readily solved. 17. Examples of the application of the general formula.—For n= 2, that is for a middle and terminal sections, (57) becomes, on dividing each quantity by 2, Ge (p= 1) 20 eect (58) which gives the following series of formulz, remembering that the coefficient must be 2/3’ as already pointed out. 1 It has already been pointed out in connection with (48) that for even values of n, the coefficient is half its proper value: (54) is of course one half of (37). That the values p=0, p=1 hold, may be verified by consider- ing the limits. 7 64 G. H. KNIBBS. X.—Integral expressions for volume. three symmetrical sections. V= - (cd. Cn eae oO Index p os a. B y 2 or 3 6 i 4 1 4. 70 det 48 je 5 90 13 64 13 6 434 57 320 57 The index 1 is satisfied with the others and 0 of course: but no other index : 2 and 3 are conjugate, and as shewn on the f curve on Fig. 2, the indices conjugate to 4 and 5 lie between 1 and 2, and those conjugate to 6 to o between | and 0. If n = 3, (57) becomes B§(p+1) (1+2?) - 2. 37} +(p—1)3?=0......... (59) which gives the following values for four sections :— XI.—Integral expressions for volume: four symmetrical sections. V= aaa + BB, + yC, + 6Do) o Index p o a. B y 6 2or 3 8 il 3 3 i 4 640 er 243 243 (ees 5 60 8 27 27 8 6 9296 1093 3645 3645 1003 The indices 0 and 1 are simultaneously satisfied with any one of these: 2 and 3 are again conjugate. The indices greater than 3 are conjugate to indices less than 2: the curve (/a being similar to the 6 curve in Fig. 2. It will be noticed that the four sections satisfy only a cubic function, the coefficients being 1, 3, 3, 1. If n=4, (57) becomes B§(p+1)(1+3) — 2.4? t+! { (p+) 2.2? — 2.4?) +(p — 1)4?=0...(60) solving which for either p=2, or p=38 gives yo = 2 = FB se awn (61). Hence there is a one-fold infinity of solutions, whenever five symmetrical transverse sections are taken, if the indices are 1, 2 and 3. Thus we may write out such solutions as the following, in all cases doubling the value of y’ as it is a middle section. VOLUMES OF SOLIDS AS RELATED TO TRANSVERSE SECTIONS. 65 XIT.—Integral coopressions for volume: five symmetrical sections. Index p = 1, 2 and 3. o a B y 3) € 9 i 2 3 2 if 12 1 4 2 4 i 15 I 6 1 6 i 18 I 8 0 8 ll etc., etc On solving for p = 4, we find ye eS Seay [Podonnsnec (62); } and on combining this solution with (61): and putting y =2y’, the solution for 6 and y becomes determinate, and for indices at any rate as far as p=1, 2, 3 and 4,’ we have B =823 y = 22. Consequently for those indices the series of coefficients are GION 4) Ba O2) ya 120 = 32.06 = 7, as already given in Table IX. Again solving for p=5, 6 and 7 we find p=d e = 82 _ ,738_— Be Biaiois' ahs thers ayers (63) Pg ee Bi (64) ne te gs. (65) By combining these results with (61) and (62) we obtain formule satisfying different indices. For example combining (63) with (61) the resultant coefficients are again the same; identical results being given by the solutions for p= 2 or 3and 4, p=2 or 3 and 5, or again for p=4and 5. Hence the series of weight-coefficients last given satisfy a guintic function, or the formula | V= = Ae eB Ne 39D ATH. .66) is absolutely exact when the original function is A,=A+ b2+C2+ De+ HaA+ Fe these indices, viz. 2 to 5 are thus seen to be conjugate for the indicated coefficients.” 1 It will be seen later that the solution is true also»=5; thatisa five-section formula is true for a quintic function, the weights being as shewn. 2'This fact does not appear when the formula is deduced by finite differences. E—June 6, 1900. 66 G. H. KNIBBS. The following table shews the coefficients obtained by combining in different ways equations (61) to (65). XIII.—Jntegral expressions for volume, five symmetrical sections. Indices p o a. or € B or 6 y 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 90 if 32 12 OU aan 8190 629 2944 1044 iy OS Why 1050 79 384 124 1, 4 , 6 69510 5323 25088 8688 1,4 Pome 9730 729 3084 1104 1, 5 , 6 44730 3389 16384 5184 1 Re 8190 607 3072 " iaaa 1, 6 a 9310 679 3584 784 Still further, if m =5, the general equation (57) becomes B} (p+1)(1 +4”) = 2.5°L+y {(p+1)(2?+3") = 2.5L + (p — 1)o° = 0 ee giving the following solutions for y :— Index 9 = 2or3 0) 4d, eas eee (68) p=a4 y = Uf + ate Bicceeescee (69) jes @ Nee |B gocsonsa5dosc (70) P= 6 Y= tEGee = geese B a (71) From (68) and (69), (68) and (70), and from (69) and (70) we find (8 = 43, y = 78, hence these are conjugate indices: (68) and (71) however give B= 335. Hence wesee that (67) with the indicated weights satisties only a quintic function, and not a sextic. Hence if the transverse section of a solid is known to be a quintic function of the distance along its axis, five sections, that is two terminal, a middle, and two other equidistant sections are sufficient, and there is no advantage in taking six sections. Thus the function being guintic, as before following (66), the volume is exactly given by the formula in Table IX., V = xix 2 (2p), » denoting any coefficient and J the corresponding section. As before, an infinite number of formule can be developed for p=1, 2 and 3; for example, any of the following series of formule satisfy a cubic function. VOLUMES OF SOLIDS AS RELATED TO TRANSVERSE SECTIONS. 67 XIV.—IL ntegral expressions for volume. sia symmetrical sections, Indices p = 1, 2, and 3. o aor ¢ B ore y or 6 8 24 1 3 48 1 FS 4 72 1 30 5 96 1 41 6 etc., etc. So also expressions can be deduced satisfying p = 1, 2,3,6; 1,2,3,7; etc.; 1, 4,6; 1,4, 7; 1,5,6;-1, 5,7; ete., ete; that is to say the weight coefficients may be so determined as to make these indices excepting 1 conjugate. This will be a sufficient indication of the application of the general formula. The identity of the formule may be shewn graphically by treating p as the independent variable, and writing y instead of 0 in (57), and in the particular formule deduced therefrom. For example the curve represented by (60) and that represented by (67), are plotted with identical parameters and shewn in Fig. 3, Curves 10 and 11. The numerical results are as follows :— p= a 2 Dee Boe AR AL D6 (60) = — 0268 0 +0058 0 —-0068 0 +:0140 0 —-0721 0 +10.67 (67) = - 0247 0 +4058 0 —-0063 0 +:0163 0 — -1128 0 +73.33 18. On the number of indices satisfied by a given number of symmetrical sections.—Let, in (57), and in the similar expressions in which p is replaced by gq, 7, etc., the absolute or final terms be denoted by A with suffixes corresponding to the indices. Express- ions of that type may then be briefly written Beer Oky #2 Avia (0 Pena C ay tN 0) ol TD) etc. etc. etc. the number of unknowns, viz. , y, etc., being as already pointed out, $n when x is even, or 3(7—1) when mis odd. We proceed to shew that in a system of equations of this type, viz. (72), A, B, C, etc., being the particular functions of p, q, etc., indicated in (55) 68 G. H. KNIBBS. and (57), the indices may have all integral values from 1 to n+ 1 when n is even, and from 1 to m when mis odd, provided that the coefficients (, y etc., are suitably determined. That is to say the series (72) will in all cases have 2m + 1 lines, m being the number of coeflicients, whether n be odd or even, when 9, q, etc., are the successive integers 1, 2, etc. We have already seen that when p = 1, A,, B,, C, etc., are all zero, and hence f, y etc. may have any values whatever: it has also been shewn that when n = 2, or n= 3, the indices 1, 2, and 3 are satistied, provided that (3 has in the former instance the value 4.1 and in the latter 3. Further it has been demonstrated that when n= 4 and n =5, the integral indices extend to 5, 6 and y’ being #2 and ¢ in the former, and £ and y <3 and 23 in the latter case. Moreover it may also be readily verified that when n=6 a septimic function is satisfied, and only a septimic when n =7. It may also be noted that all the equations in (72) are not independent. For example kK C2 eG ee K, @= 1) fk + (m - ky)? — Qn? ~ on that is to say the values A,, B,, 0, etc, are simply 2nA,, 2nB,, 2nC,, etc. Again if p denote an even (par) number, and 7 the odd (tmpar) number a unit greater than p, that is 1=p + 1, then we shall have KG ge 7K : Pia =P ae—pnr he EBD e2h2,..—pnk? 1428? (TA) Pa Biases a ~in'h+ ee igs oe (75) that is K, has the same number of terms as K,, and & is raised to the same powers. We may divide this last equation (75) by n, hence substitutiny » + | for « we have 1 Pp a (p+1 hae eo put a nC: —(p+l1)n? WW a St )pP n' kk? ~ P ig “(+l +1) PO nk + (p+ 1)kP ..(75a) ak) ta 1 g’ will be 2. VOLUMES OF SOLIDS AS RELATED TO TRANSVERSE SECTIONS. 69 that is the powers of n are all identical with those in (77), and only the coefficients differ. Similarly Spel. ern, reek (76) ’ l ) pe 2 at xT) “nlp +2) ped Hence we may divide all the equations with even indices by (p+1), and all those with odd indices by n(i+1). The resulting quantities K,/(p + 1), Ki/(2 + 1), ete., may be conveniently distinguished by accents, aS in these five last equations. Let the even indices be denoted by p, r, ¢etc.; then commencing the series (72), as modified, with p=2, we obtain the equations Beser Cy A —0 BoriP + Coiy+-- Apa =9 mo CUS) etc. etc. etc. the factors of B, y, etc., being of the type (75) and (75a): & will be 1 for the term f, 2 for y, 3 for 6 and so on, and we may write randr+1,¢and¢+ 1, ete. for the successive pairs of indices. Then it will suffice to shew that values of 6, y, etc. which satisfy the general equation for p, an even integer, will also satisfy it for p + 1, an odd integer, provided p be not greater than n. In other words it will then be evident that the m coefficients may be cal-_ culated from either the m even indices commencing with 2, or the m odd indices commencing with 3; the solution from the one series satisfying the other. That a »* function is satisfied in any case, when the coefficients are symmetrical with respect to the middle section, is shewn in the derivation of formule, by the method of finite differences. If therefore we write the general equation by commencing with the sections nearest the middle section when 7 is odd, or the middle section when n is even, we have for n=1 BE Pe ON ote AY “ 3 vs at a ot 2 sae + 5) i+] S-a2)* (Gt aa) a+1) (79) continuing with terms 5/2n, 7/2n, etc.; and also for n=p a 70 G. H. KNIBBS. Woo) sie iad a ee i+ ie = 2) +ete, . c 2n oe pt+l 2 In 27 In p+1)(79a) continuing 4/2n, 6/2n, ete. Obviously too, in expanding, we have the same number of terms, since in (79) the final terms in the expansion cancel one another. By considering (74) to (79a) we easily see that (79a) will satisfy the same values for p as will (79), or, as has been illustrated in the graph of curves 10 and 11 in Fig. 3, an n function is satisfied when 1 is odd, and a (n+1)'* when n is even: that is to say :— Fig. 3. curve II. Ordinates. Curves 6-9 ,7 O02 Abscissa =p Curve 6.—Graph of 2/( + 1). Curve 7.—Graph of [kP + (n—k)P |/n?; k/n = 3 Curve 8.— 99 cB) 3 +3 = S Curve 9.— ” 9 3) asl é Curve 10 —Five symmetrical sections: graph shews that a quintic function is satisfied. Curve 11.—Six symmetrical sections: graph shews that a quintic function only, and not a sextic is satisfied. Prop. (0). When the transverse sections include the terminal sections, are equidistant, and have assigned to them suitable weight- coefficients, the coefficient being the same for any pair of sections ' gir VOLUMES OF SOLIDS AS RELATED TO TRANSVERSE SECTIONS. 71 equidistant from the centre, then tf one of the sections be a middle section the function satisfied will be of the same degree as the number of sections, but if there be no middle section the degree will be one less than the number of sections. 19.1 Manifold infinity of possible formule with symmetrical sections.—It has been shewn that for any given number of indices a certain number of sections must be taken, these having definite weight-coefficients. In symmetrical sections it has also been demonstrated that if m be the number of different coefficients, excluding that for the terminal sections, the degree of the function satisfied willbe 2m+1. If coefficients more than are necessary in a particular case are taken, then a k-fold infinity of formule may be developed.’ 1 Added 16th June, 1900. 2 The solids referred to in Note 1, page 62, are solids of revolution merely. The form of the zy function is however quite immaterial. (2 H, G. SMITH. On tHE AMYL ESTER or EUDESMIC ACID, occurrine In EUCALYPTUS OILS. By Henry G. Smiru, F.c.s., Assistant Curator, Technological Museum, Sydney. [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, June 6, 1900. } In a paper by Mr. R. T. Baker and myself ‘‘ On the Stringybark Trees of New South Wales,” read before this Society, July 1898, we show that an ester must be present in the oil of Hucalyptus macrorhyncha. We had several times detected the presence of esters in other Eucalyptus oils but always in too minute quantities to allow them to be isolated with any success. The investigation into the constituents of these oils, now being undertaken on material obtained from undoubted species, enables the statement to be made, that most probably esters are present in all Eucalyptus oils, and it is to be supposed, therefore, that to these the characteristic odour of Eucalyptus oil is largely due. There is an organic connection between the constituents of the oils of the genus Eucalyptus, and it appears almost certain that most if not all of those constituents occurring in minute quantities in the oils of some species, are present in larger amount in the oils of other species. It is certainly so with the two pinenes present in these oils, with levo-phellandrene,’ with eudesmol, with (?) cumin- aldehyde, with eucalyptol and with other constituents which have been isolated during this research; the chemistry of these, how- | ever, 1s not yet completed. The ester that forms the subject of this paper has been detected in several oils in increasing amount. The oil of the ‘‘ Black Gum” 1 Investigation of the oils of most of the New South Wales species of Kuealyptus points to the fact that dextro-phellandrene does not occur in — these oils. AMYL ESTER OF EUDESMIC ACID IN EUCALYPTUS OILS. 73 Eucalyptus aggregata, contains the ester in sufficient quantity to enable its constituents to be isolated and determined. Unfortunately the yield of oil is small in those species of Kucalyptus giving this esterin largest amount. The leaves of the “Black Gum” #. aggregata, from which this oil was obtained, were sent by the Museum collector, Mr. Baiierlen, in the month of October, from Fagan’s Creek, near Braidwood, in this colony. Four hundred pounds of leaves were received, but the amount of oil obtained was only two and a half ounces, equal to 0-04 per cent. More material was not obtainable later, without great trouble and expense, as trees of this species do not occur within easy distance of Sydney. More leaves of the “‘ Black Gum” will be obtained at the first opportunity and the chemistry of the acid completed, a research I would like to reserve to myself. It is probable, however, that we may yet find other species of Eucalyptus containing this ester in fairly large quantities. The oils of #. botryoides and of £. saligna contain an ester in fair amount; it is present in the oil of Z. rostrata, and in the oils of several other species its presence can be proved. The determination of this ester explains much in reference to Eucalyptus oil that previously seemed obscure. It is most prob- able that the amyl alcohol of this ester is connected with the valeraldehyde known to be present in these oils, and it may, perhaps, be found eventually, that the (?) cuminaldehyde, existing in so many of these Eucalyptus oils, has some connection with the acid of the ester. In the oil of Z. rostrata both the ester and (1) cuminaldehyde occur together. The presence of this aldehyde is much more frequent in these oils than was previously supposed. [Since this paper was prepared I have been investigating the aromatic aldehyde found in many Eucalyptus oils. This con- stituent was previously supposed to be cuminaldehyde and its odour and reactions certainly suggested that substance; but further research points to the fact that it is not ordinary cumin- aldehyde. When isolated in a pure condition its odour is more qs H. G. SMITH. aromatic than cuminaldehyde, and it differs from that aldehyde in having a somewhat high rotation to the left, a less specific gravity, a lower boiling point, and its oxime melts at a much higher temperature. It is now being further investigated. | ' It must not be thought that the odour of some Eucalyptus oils is entirely due to this ester. In the oil of Z. patentinervis a very small quantity of an ester is present, but the odour of the saponified oil is excellent, resembling somewhat that of Bergamot oil, and there is little doubt but that either linalool or geraniol is present. Acetylation of the oil showed no less than 16:5 per cent. of free alcohol to be present in the oil of this species, calculated as linalodl. A small quantity of citral was removed from the oil of this species (H, patentinervis) by acid sodium sulphite, and deter- mined by the formation of the alcyl-8-naphtocinchoninic acid characteristic of citral,? and it seems reasonable to suppose that this citral has some connection with the aromatic alcohol present in the oil of this species. The leaves have a lemon odour when crushed and are quite aromatic. It was previously supposed that botanically 2. patentinervis was connected with L. resinifera but the chemical determination of the constituents of its oil shows it to have no immediate connection with that species, but to be allied to HL. botryoides and perhaps more closely to £. saligna. In the list of known constituents of the oil of ZL. globulus, published by Schimmel and Co., report April 1897, we find amyl alcohol mentioned, it may be considered that this amyl alcohol was originally derived from the ester now being described, and goes to show that even in an oil like that of H. globulus an ester is present at some time, although when distilled these oils usually consist largely of pinene and eucalyptol. The oil of Eucalyptus aggregata. The crude oil of the “Black Gum” £. aggregata, is very fluid, much like water in that respect, it is light orange-brown in colour 1 Added 25 July, 1900. 2 There is no doubt but that citral does occur naturally in some Eucalyptus oils. AMYL ESTER OF EUDESMIC ACID IN EUCALYPTUS OILS. 75 and the odour has but little resemblance to ordinary Eucalyptus oil. It has a high specific gravity for an Eucalyptus oil, and it was this peculiarity that first directed attention to it. On distil- lation under atmospheric pressure 26 per cent. was obtained, distilling between 156° and 164° C.,’ this was principally dextro- pinene, proved by its boiling point, formation and character of its nitrosochloride, its odour and other tests; only 12 per cent. was obtained, distilling between 164° and 245° C. while 22 per cent. distilled between 245° and 292° C.; the remainder was poured from the still and became semi-crystalline on cooling. The portion adhering to the still was removed by ether. The crystalline residue was reserved for further determination. The specific gravity of the crude oil at 15° C. was 0-956 fraction 156° — 164° C. at 15° C. = 0866 <5 164°-—245°C. _,, = 0:8769 35 5 $5 245° — 292°C. 4, = 09868 Specific rotation, fraction 156° — 164° C. = [a]) + 27:13°. Light did not pass with the crude oil. 99 99 Phellandrene could not be detected in this oil, and eucalyptol also appears to be quite absent. The principal constituents present are dextropinene and the ester, with perhaps some poly- merised terpenes. A small quantity of a new constituent is also present, this has not yet been determined, but it has been isolated from the oils of several other species of Eucalyptus in some of which it occurs in fairly large quantities. Determination of Ester in the owl of E. aggregata. As it was evident that an acid had been separated at the high temperature used during the distillation, determinations of the ester in the original oil were made. The oil was boiled for half an hour with a known quantity of alcoholic potash, standardised by semi-normal sulphuric acid, a condenser being used in the ordinary way. 1 These temperatures have been currected to the nearest whole degree. 76 H. G. SMITH. (L) 1-017 gramme oil required 0:1148 gramme potash, therefore saponification figure = 112°8. (2) 3:2378 gramme oil required 03612 gramme potash, saponi- fication figure = 111-6. The result of the analysis of the acid gave a molecular formula C,,H,,0, as determined by its silver salt. Amyl alcohol is the alcohol of the ester, and considering the acid as monocarboxylic, the formula of the ester would be C,;H,,COOC,H,, with a molecular value of 288, therefore the percentage of ester in the oil of EL. aggregata is for No. 1 determination 58 per cent., for No. 2 equivalent to 57:4 per cent. or a mean value of 57°7 per cent.; this is assuming no other ester to be present in the oil. Determination of the alcohol of the ester. A portion of the oil of Z. aggregata was boiled for some time with aqueous potash, a good reflux condenser being used. The solution was then distilled. The aqueous solution obtained was surmounted by an oily substance in which the odour of amyl alcohol could be detected. ‘The aqueous solution, which gave the iodoform reaction, was separated from the oily portion and redistilled. Nothing was obtained boiling below 100° C.; the distillate contained a few oily globules ; neither methyl nor ethyl alcohol was present. The distillate gave the iodoform reaction readily, and on boiling it with sulphuric acid and sodium acetate the solution had the characteristic odour of amyl acetate. The oily portion of the first distillate was redistilled, it commenced to distil at 130° C., and the portion distilling between 130° — 135° C. was collected; although masked somewhat by the presence of a portion of the other constituents of the oil it had the odour and gave the reactions for amyl alcohol. When oxidised with potassium bichromate and sulphuric acid, and treated in the usual way, the acid obtained had the characteristic odour and reactions of valeric acid. The alcohol of this ester is therefore amy] alcohol. Determination of the acid of the ester. The fraction obtained distilling between 245° — 292° C. was agitated with aqueous potash, the alkaline solution was acidified AMYL ESTER OF EUDESMIC ACID IN EUCALYPTUS OILS. AT with hydrochloric acid, when a soft paraffin-like substance sepa- rated, this soon became crystalline. The separated oil, after agitating with the potash solution, was saponified with alcoholic potash in the usual way, water added and the aqueous solution acidified, more of the crystalline acid was thus obtained showing that some of the ester had distilled unchanged, it may be mechanically. The residue left in the still above 292° C. was agitated with aqueous potash, and on acidifying the alkaline solution a fairly large quantity of the crystalline acid was obtained. On saponifying the portion insoluble in aqueous potash in the usual way and acidifying the solution, only a very small quantity of the crystal- line acid was obtained, showing that the greater portion of the ester had been decomposed by the temperature at which the oil had been distilled. The crystalline substance thus obtained was the acid of the ester occurring in this oil, and on purifying each of the portions obtained as described above, an identical crystallised acid was obtained. No phenols could be detected. The purification of the acid was carried out as follows :—The crystalline substance, obtained by acidifying the potash solution, was dissolved in alcohol and boiled with the addition of a little animal charcoal, filtered, and allowed to erystallise. The crystals were separated, dissolved in boiling water, and filtered boiling hot, On cooling the acid was deposited in crystals, recrystallisation from boiling water was repeated two or three times, a product of constant melting point was thus obtained. It is very necessary to obtain the crystals thus, as the impurities present cannot otherwise be removed, and these lower the melting point consider- ably. If purification be carried out as described above, the melting point of the crystals obtained in any direction will be constant. The same crystals were obtained when the original oil was saponified with alcoholic potash, and also when aqueous potash was used for determining the alcohol. The acid is quite white and in general appearance is not much unlike salicylic acid, it crystallises in rhombic prisms and these 78 H. G. SMITH. polarize brightly in colours. The melting point of the crystals is 160° C. (uncor.) and a crystalline mass is again formed on cooling, The melting point is that of the individual crystals adhering to the inner side of the tube, the melting point of the mass in the tube is not sharp, and an error of two degrees might easily occur. The acid is a very weak one, but it is exceeding soluble in ammonia and the alkalis. It is very sparingly soluble in cold water, easily soluble in hot water, in alcohol, in ether, in acetone and chloroform, but it is insoluble in benzene, in petroleum spirit (even on boiling) and in carbon bisulphide (slightly on boiling). Sublimation—The acid sublimes with difficulty and at rather a high temperature, it sublimes unchanged. Ammonium salt—The acid is exceedingly soluble in ammonia, the solution was evaporated to dryness over sulphuric acid, it crystallised very well, it is not readily soluble in cold water, but is so in hot water; it does not separate out again at once on cooling, thus differing from the acid itself. Ferric salt—The aqueous solution of the ammonium salt was used, ferric chloride gives a light orange precipitate insoluble even in a large quantity of water. Copper salt—Sulphate of copper gives a light bluish-green pre- cipitate in the aqueous solution of the ammonium salt. Silver salt—When nitrate of silver is added to the aqueous solution of the ammonium salt fine crystallisation of the silver salt soon takes place, the crystals are white but become pinkish on exposure to light. Neither barium chloride nor calcium chloride gives a precipitate. Solubility of the acid in water at 20° C. The pure acid was dissolved in boiling distilled water, and when at the temperature viven the crystals which had separated were removed by filtration ; 25:48 grammes of the filtrate gave 0:0188 gramme solid, equivalent to 0:0738 per cent., or the acid required 1,355 parts of water at 20° C. to dissolve one part of acid. AMYL ESTER OF EUDESMIC ACID IN EUCALYPTUS OILS. 79 Determination of the Bromide. On adding bromide water to the aqueous solution of the acid it it was at once bleached ; the acid is, therefore unsaturated. The acid was dissolved in hot water and bromine added until in excess. The bromide was very soluble in hot water, on cooling and stand- ing a crystalline mass was obtained, this was almost colourless, it melted at 102°- 103° C. The determination of this bromide was made by ignition with lime in the usual way. 0:1576 gramme bromide taken, total silver bromide obtained 0°1546 gramme or 0:0658 gramme bromine, equivalent to 41:75 per cent. bromine. C,,H,,Br,0, requires 42°6 per cent. bromine. This indicates a dibromide. The reactions showed the bromine to be present in the side chain. Molecular value of the acid. On adding silver nitrate to the cold aqueous solution of the acid no precipitate was obtained, the silver salt being soluble in dilute aqueous solution. The method adopted was to add a little water to some of the pure acid crystals, and then just sufficient ammonia to dissolve the acid. On adding two or three drops of silver nitrate solution a curdy precipitate formed at once, the solution was removed from this and silver nitrate added in excess; fine crystallisation rapidly took place, this was finally crystallised from water. The silver salt is exceedingly soluble in hot water and is fairly soluble in cold water. 0°0762 gramme of the silver salt gave 0:0258 gramme metallic silver on ignition, equivalent to 33°86 per cent.; the molecular weight of the acid from this deter- mination is 212. 00204 gramme silver salt gave 0:0068 gramme silver, equivalent to 33°33 per cent., molecular weight of acid from this is 217. An acid with a formula C,,H,,0, has a molecular weight 218, and C,,H,,;COOAg contains 33°23 per cent. silver. Action of Nitric Acid. On treating the acid crystals with nitric acid they at once dissolved with formation of a crimson colour, this soon changed to orange, on heating it became almost colourless. On adding ™" 80 H. G. SMITH. water, colourless crystals were obtained ; these were little soluble in cold water but soluble in alcohol. It is doubtful if this was a nitro-compound. The crystals are microscopic needles, acid to litmus, and melted at 113° C.; on powdering the fused material — it again melted at the same temperature. This is near the melting point of cumic acid, and if it be that acid, then ordinary oxidation of the side chain had taken place. Theoretical. As shown above, the molecular weight of the acid of the ester is near 215. The alcohol present is amyl-alcohol, so that the formula for this ester is C,,H,,COOC,H,, assuming the acid to be monobasic. The only consideration is that of the structure of the acid. Eudesmic acid is unsaturated, taking up bromine to form a dibromide. It is not a member of the series of fatty acids, and its characters remove it from the acrylic series. Probably it belongs to the series of acids homologous with cinnamic acid. The formula for cumyl-angelic acid is C,,H,,0, having a molecular weight of 218, this approaches very closely the molecular weight found for eudesmic acid. [ Analdehyde resembling ]' cuminaldehyde is frequently found occurring in Eucalyptus oils, and it may be that this has some connection with eudesmic acid. Perkin? describes a series of acids he had formed from cuminaldehyde. The cumyl] or cumenylacrylic acid C,,H,,O, thus obtained consisted of white needles melting at 157°—158° C., and giving reactions somewhat resembling those obtained from eudesmic acid. The results show some resemblance between the two acids, but there are many differences between them ; the observed molecular weight might suggest cumyl-angelic acid as the more probable. The cumenyl- angelic acid formed by Perkin melted at 123° C.; probably the side chain in eudesmic acid constitutes an isomeric form of angelic acid, this may explain the differences in melting points. When the research on this acid is continued, Perkin’s experiments will be repeated. The crystalline acid, obtained by the action of nitric acid, had the characters of cumic acid. If this is eventually 1 Added 25th July, 1900. 2 Journ. Chem. Soc., xxx1 , 388. A NEW METEORITE FROM NEW SOUTH WALES. 81 shown to be that acid then the side chain in eudesmic acid is in the para position relatively to the iso-propyl. This will be decided when more material has been obtained. The name, eudesmic acid, is from Robert Brown’s name for the genus “ Eudesmia.” J Heritier’s name ‘‘ Eucalyptus,” however, had priority. I would like to express my thanks to my colleague Mr. R. T, Baker, F.L.S., for botanical assistance in the preparation of this paper, it being necessarily of the greatest importance that the material worked upon should be true to name. Note on A NEW METEORITE From NEW SOUTH WALES. By R. T. Baker, F.L.s., | Curator, Technological Museum, Sydney. [With Plate I.] [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, June 6, 1900. | THE meteorite, the subject of this note, was found early in January of this year, about two miles from Bugaldi Post Office, fifteen miles north-west of Coonabarabran by Mr. W. Gould. I am indebted to Mr. Robert Wilcox, Postmaster of Bugaldi for the data in connection with the discovery of it. This gentleman obtained all particulars for me from Mr. Gould. and it was through his agency that it came into the possession of the Museum. Mr. Wilcox writing me when despatching the specimen to Sydney, states :—‘“‘The stone or supposed meteorite was found showing on the surface of the ground. It was noticed by the ground being torn and broken on sucha hard ridge. It had penetrated the ground and rose out. It was found about two F—June 6,,1900. F . 7 uf a 82 R. T. BAKER. miles from Bugaldi Post Office. Mr. Gould was driving a team of horses and passed over it and examined the broken ground to discover the cause.” In reply to another letter of mine asking for further data, Mr. Wilcox informed me that he accompanied Mr. Gould to the side of the Box Ridge where he obtained the meteorite, and with him examined the spot where it struck the earth. There was only a small impression as there had been general showers of rain. The spot was viewed from all sides, and from the impression on the ground and by the way the meteorite was lying, it must have come from the north-west. When picked up it was lying flat, the larger end slightly in the earth, but it had probably shifted from the position when it first struck the earth. Shape and General Description.—Its greatest longitudinal measurement is about 5% inches, its greatest breadth about 34 inches, and its greatest thickness about 2} inches. It is pear- shaped, or as one person described it, similar to a bicycle seat. This meteorite belongs to that class known as siderites, and is probably composed of iron and nickel. It has a well defined closely adhering ‘skin’ of black magnetic material, while the metal immediately beneath this coating is silvery white in appear- ance. This ‘skin’ has apparently formed after the impact. At the extremity of the larger end a smooth portion remains, and on this can be seen very distinctly, Widmanstatten figures. The specimen has an exceedingly new appearance as if it had only just arrived upon the earth. It is almost a replica in shape of the Bingara Meteorite described before this Society by Prof. Liversidge in 1882, but much larger than that one. It has similar cracks and pits on the surface. The narrow end appears from indications in the skin to have slightly twisted, but whether this end is the original mass and the thick end to have twisted from it can only be determined by analysis. The skin on the upper surface and towards the base of the thicker end is undulate, and on the corresponding part of the lower surface is longitudinally A NEW METEORITE FROM NEW SOUTH WALES. 83 ridged. These two irregular surfaces enclose a smooth one on which are impressed the Widmanstatten figures. Specific Gravity —The specific gravity is 7:°853 at 16° C. Its weight is 2053°7 grammes or 4 ibs. 8°43 ounces avoirdupois. How it probably struck the Harth.—It is only perhaps in excep- tional cases that meteorites possess features that will permit of any advancing of a theory in regard to the mode of impact with the earth. In the case of this meteorite the furrow made by it showed that it came from the north-west, also it must have struck the earth at a very acute angle as proved by its shape, which shows very little evidence of impact. The chief features of this meteorite are :—(a) Its new appear- ance, for it looks as though it has been just taken from a mould inanironfoundry. (0) There are no indications of slow oxidation and where the skin has been broken off, the metal surface exposed is just as though it had been polished. (c) The natural presence of Widmanstatten figures. Professor Liversidge, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., has kindly undertaken to make a chemical investigation of this meteorite, the result of which will be published later. 84 C. O. BURGE. NOTES ON RACK RAILWAYS. By C. O. BurGs, M. Inst. C.E. [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, August 8, 1900. ] THE method of overcoming the difficulties in railway construction caused by unavoidable steep ascents, by means of the rack and pinion connexion between locomotive and road, is a comparatively old one, but it has only been in quite recent years that it has been carried out to any great extent. As there are now nearly one hundred rack railways in various parts of the world in use, of which some are in the neighbouring colonies, and as surveys have been made and information obtained by the Railway ‘Construction Branch, N. 8. Wales Government, with the view to their intro- duction here, it was thought that a few notes on the subject might be acceptable to the Society. Ordinary road traction is heavy owing to two causes, friction and unevenness. Friction, because the wheel under its load sinks in the ground and friction is set up between the sides of the rim and those of the groove made by the impression of the wheel ; and unevenness, because the ground, not being of uniform hardness, is shaped at the bottom of the groove, by the load, into a succession of small grades, which have to be overcome. To avoid these, iron plates, a century ago, were laid upon the road, thus forming the rudimentary railway from which all the enormous subsequent development has sprung. The name of this primitive contrivance for ordinary horse traffic, survives in that of the ‘“plate-layer” of the modern railway. Edge rails, as they were called, and the steam locomotive followed; but the introduction of the smooth and hard rail brought with it difficulties of its own in respéct of what is known as adhesion—difficulties which were practically imperceptible in the ordinary road. RACK RAILWAYS. 85 If the resultant between the direction of the force of gravity, and that of the traction force of a locomotive, developed at the circumference of the driving wheel, forms a less angle with the rail surface, longitudinally, than the angle of friction between steel and steel, evidently, when the driving wheel is impelled, there will be insufficient resistance, and it will slip, causing no motion to the vehicle in the contrary direction. There is no purchase to work from. Extra weight on the driving wheel increases the resultant angle referred to, and, by distributing the weight over as many driving or coupled wheels as possible, the purchase is increased, but there is a limit to this, and when in surmounting heavy gradients, the resistance due to the gravity is added to that due to the friction of the load to be drawn, a point is reached in the amount of the load, when the traction is so great in proportion to the greatest practicable weight on the drivers that the resultant angle referred to cannot be kept greater than the angle of friction, and adhesion ceases unless either the angle of friction—which yaries with the weather—is decreased by sand- ing the rails, or some special contrivance is adopted. Such a contrivance is the rack and pinion, which is the subject of this paper. The apparatus, in its simplest form, consists of a rack, laid centrally between the ordinary rails, with which one or more steam driven pinions, which can be coupled in sets under the engine, engages. At first the rack took the form of a ladder, the rungs of which were acted upon by the cogs of the central engine wheel, but this was soon abandoned for the ordinary rack and pinion. It is clear that such a contrivance must be absolutely free from all danger of breakage, for if either rack or pinion were to break, the train would have nothing to hold it but the brakes, and as the incline to which the system is applied is necessarily severe, a great strain would be put upon these, and a great risk of a dangerous runaway incurred. This led to the introduction by Mr. Roman Abt, whose rack system has been more generally adopted than any other, to devise 86 C. O. BURGE. two racks side by side, the teeth of which are staggered, that is to say the tooth of one is opposite the space of the other, an. additional engine pinion being set to correspond. On extremely steep grades or where loading is heavy, three racks have been used, where the teeth of each are set one-third of the pitch behind its neighbour. Hence, should there be a failure in one set of rack or pinion teeth, the other set serves to hold the engine. Moreover there are generally two sets of pinions, set tandem fashion and coupled, to each rack. The following is the description of the permanent way of the Nilgiri rack railway, which is one of those most recently laid, and is from the Government Report. I have had some particulars of this line, which is‘on the metre gauge, courteously supplied by an old colleague—the present Engineer-in-Chief, Madras Railway — and the rack line in question is an extension of a branch line with which I was connected when in India. The rails are 50 ibs. steel, flat footed, 28 ft. 14 in. long on the straight, held down by single spiking, except at joints, where the outer spikes are double. The rails are fastened with deep, angle iron, six bolted, fish-plates, weighing 40 ibs. per pair. The sleepers are of Pyngadu wood, spaced 2 ft. 63°, in. apart, size 6 ft. x 8 in, x6in. The rack is a double plate Abt steel rack on cast iron chairs, weighing in all 90 ibs per yard. The length of the rack bars is that of four sleeper spaces. The bars break joint, and are each 4-5; in. x fin., the pitch is 4}% in. and the pitch line is +3 in. below top of bar. The two bars have a space of 14in. between them. The slope with the vertical of the rack tooth at pitch line, is 1 in 4. The radius of pitch circle of pinion is 114 in. full. There is a pair of pinions keyed on to the rack shaft to correspond with the pair of rack bars. The rack teeth break pitch. The foregoing . dimensions are mostly given in millimetres in the report, and are converted in the above to the nearest equivalent in sixteenth parts of aninch. The steepest grade is 1 in 124, and the sharpest curve 328 ft. or about 5 chains, radius. RACK RAILWAYS. 87 The Abt engines used are described as follows. They are six- wheeled, the lower or down hill two pairs being coupled. The wheel base is 10 ft., of which 3ft. 6in. is between the coupled wheels. Length over buffers 24 ft. The loads on the wheels are 113 tons on each pair of coupled, and 10 tons on the pair of uncoupled wheels, total 33 tons, in steam and coal. The wheels are 2 ft. 8 in. diameter. Midway between the non-coupled and the inner pair of coupled wheels are two pairs of rack pinions in tandem 2 ft. 54 in. apart, driven by a third pinion keyed on a crank axle. This crank axle is driven by a pair of cylinders 10#in. in diameter and 14 in. stroke inside the main frame of the engine. Outside the main frame, and in line with the rack cylinders, is a second pair of cylinders 13 in. diameter and 16 in. stroke, which drive the adhesion wheels. The boiler which is 8ft. 4in. long in the barrel has a tilt of 1 in 20. There are tanks and coal bunkers. The overall breadth of the engine is 8 ft. 6 in. and its height over chimney 10 ft. 6in. The heating surface is 750 square feet, and the grate area about 16 square feet. The Government Inspector took two fully loaded vehicles and a brake van, in all 67 tons 14 cwt., or with the engine about 100 tons, up 900 ft. on the 1 in 123 gradient at about 4 miles per hour, the pressure being 175 ibs. to 180 ibs. The permanent way proposed by the Abt patentee for the New South Wales lines, has not yet reached the stages of consideration by the Department, and the particulars of it have only been supplied in order that some idea of its character might be before us, in arriving at an estimate. As however, the design is the result of the great experience of the Abt Company in similar cases, it may be, with the above qualification, described in this paper, the gradient in view being | in 124, and the sharpest curve 9 chains, the gauge being, of course, 4 ft. 84 in. The rails are of the T section 80 lbs. per yard, with fish-plates 59 tbs. per pair, fixed by @ in. bolts to steel sleepers 7 ft. 104 in. long 3 in. deep of the usual inverted hollow shape, in. thick. The rack bars three in number, are 44 in. deep and 14 in. thick, and 88 C. O. BURGE. are 13in. apart, set in cast iron chairs, with two jaws 23 in. high, through which, and the three racks, $ in. bolts pass. The base of — the chair, which is 93 in. wide, is attached to the sleeper by { in. bolts. In this case also the dimensions given are in millimetres, and have been converted into the nearest fraction of an inch. In the Mount Morgan 3 ft. 6 in. line in Queensland, which is also a comparatively recent work, the maximum grade is 1 in 163, on which there are 10 chain curves, and the engines used are four wheel coupled, with rear truck, having adhesion cylinders and valve gear outside and rack cylinder and mechanism inside, this latter being arranged with four pinions for double rack bars. The adhesion cylinders are 113 in. diameter, stroke 20 in., driving two pairs coupled wheels 3 ft, diameter, with a base of 6 ft. 3in. The rack cylinders are 114 in. diameter and 15% in. stroke, and the diameter of the pinions at pitch line is 22;%;in. The heating sur- face is 4544 square feet, and the grate area 11:28 square feet. The weight of the engine is 26 tons 17 cwt. in working order, and it takes 50 to 60 tons besides its own weight, up the incline of 1 in 164. In the Strub system of rack, which has chiefly come into promin- ence by its adoption for the ascent of the Jungfrau metre gauge electric line, there is only one rack, but it is of very strong section forming a heavy central cogged bar 23 in. thick, and it is of special design in order to throw off accummulation of snow and prevent lodgement of ice, which was specially necessary in that case. To guard against consequence of breakage a very powerful grip brake, which will be referred to later, is in use. There is a grade of | in 4 on this line, full particulars of which are given in the Bulletin of the International Railway Congress for May 1899. The grades dealt with by the rack system seldom exceed | in 4, but there is one of 1 in 2 built on the Locher system, in which the racks are horizontal, extending outward from a central rail, the pinions being horizontal. Except under special circumstances such as light weighted tourist traffic, nothing steeper than | in 10 should be used, in fact in regard to a line, now under survey in RACK RAILWAYS. 89 this colony, the agent of the Abt Company states that the 1 in 10 at first contemplated, must if possible, be reduced to 1 in 123 at least, as this is the limiting grade in practice, up which an ordinary adhesion locomotive could travel light with its own weight only, in all weathers, so that any steeper grade would isolate the systems connected by the rack line, as regards free circulation of ordinary locomotive stock, and also much more expensive brake power must be applied, as the ordinary adhesion brakes would be of little or no assistance. Further, in the extremely steep rack lines which form part of a general system to be worked by combined rack and adhesion locomotives, the difficulty would occur of arranging the boiler to suit both. The tilt in the barrel suitable to an excessive | grade, such as that allowable in a purely rack line of great steep- ness, would be unworkable on the level or ordinary adhesion grades. Again, on the other hand, the usefulness of the system diminishes considerably when the grades can be eased to 1 in 25 or there- abouts, the gain not being worth the complication of a special system, the exact limit depending upon the circumstances of each particular case. The difficulty of the entry of the engine easily on to the rack portion has been ingeniously got rid of by a contrivance invented by Mr. Abt. The rack bars are continued for a sbort distance on to the level or easy grade, at either end, and the last length of them is bevelled off, as regards its depth, down to nothing, at the end next to the adhesion line, and hinged vertically at the other end to the previous rack bars. These end bars are supported below by several strong spiral springs. The pinions on the engine which are left free to revolve on the approach to the rack, are thus gradually and easily, by means of the bevel and the elastic movement of the end rack bars, engaged with it, and by the time that the incline is reached, the pinions are in workable position to be acted upon by the cylinders driving them. The changes between varying rates of grades on the rack must be gradually effected in vertical curves—4,000 ft. is the minimum radius of these on the Nilgiri line, and 3,300 ft. is that recommended 90 C. O. BURGE. by the Abt Company in the case of the 1 in 124 grade here. This is required to prevent the tendency to mount the rack, and for the same reason, it is evidently necessary that the relative levels of the ordinary bearing rails and of the rack should be rigidly preserved. With this view, steel sleepers have been advocated, and have been adopted in the Jungfrau line, so that a more rigid framework is attained, than if the fastenings were to ordinary wooden sleepers. But when the sleepers are of hard wood, such as in the Nilgiri case, and in Australia, the framing would appear to be sufficiently rigid with the timber foundation. It need hardly be stated that in either case, the road must be well ballasted, and maintained in the best order. Points and crossings might generally be avoided on a rack portion, and limited to stopping places and junctions where easy adhesion grades for other reasons might be interposed. I find however that in the case of the Nilgiri line already referred to, the consulting engineer has ordered the short gaps in the rack at easier portions, including stations, as first constructed, to be filled up with the rack, making it continuous, so as to leave as few re-entering places as possible. When points and crossings cannot be avoided on the rack itself, the point is made in the same form that we are familiar with in a contractor’s temporary road, that is that the two meeting sets of rack bars stop one length short of the actual junction, and the interval is filled in with a moveable rack bar hinged horizontally at the junction end, and adjustable by switch rods at the other, to either line. The two rack crossings required, when each set of rack crosses the bearing rail are so arranged that at these places the rack bars and bearing rail are made of the same length, and interlocked so that the same action which moves the rack points described above, causes the rail at one crossing to be moved aside and replaced by the equivalent length of rack, and the rack at the other crossing to be replaced by the rail. The braking on rack lines must necessarily be of a very powerful and trustworthy character, and in the steeper grades must be RACK RAILWAYS. 9} applied to the rack mechanism, the adhesion brakes being in that case insufficient in themselves. Usually there are brake discs on the shaft of the pinion mechanism, by means of which the pinions may be completely locked, and there is an auxiliary loose pinion with brake discs on the trailing axle. The last serves merely for stopping the train, in case of any accident to the driving pinions or their gear. The braking on down gradients is done by using the steam cylinders as air compressors, there being special pro- visions for this purpose. On the Nilgiri line the engines are furnished with the Chatelier brake on both rack and adhesion cylinders. All stock, both passenger and goods, are fitted with the vacuum automatic brake acting on all six engine wheels and all eight wheels of each vehicle. The rack pinions are also power- fully braked. The trains are worked down the descent almost entirely by the Chatelier brake, the driver keeping one hand on that, and the other on the handle of the vacuum. Thus in an instant, he can apply the former on the engine and the latter throughout the whole length of the train. A similar system isin use on the Mount Lyell 3 ft. 6 in. rack line in Tasmania. In the Strub system, the form of the central rack with smooth high vertical sides, allows of the employment of a scissors shape grip brake, which is worked by hand from the vehicle fitted with it, gripping the rack bar itself, and it forms an effective addition to the other brakes used. For bridges under the railway, arches instead of girders are preferable, as otherwise the action of the pinions on the racks would tend to cause the whole superstructure to creep downwards. When girders are used, heavy abutments must be built on the lower end of the bridge bearing against the end of the girders. To guard against creep in the road generally, anchoring stop posts butting against the down side of sleeper at intervals are some- times required to be driven. However, in the Nilgiri line, the deep fish plates butting against the sleepers, seem to be sufficient. 92 C. O. BURGE. Sharp curves must be avoided in steep rack inclines, not only for the reason applying to ordinary lines, that the resistances due to these should not, if possible, be coincident, but for others due to the working of the system itself. Owing to the danger arising from possible failure of drawbars, the rack engine is usually placed at the lower end of the train, and in ascending, is therefore push- ing its load. The limiting safe stress on drawbars for instance in New South Wales railways is 25,000 tbs. which on a grade of | in 124 would be the strain produced, together with train friction, by a load of about 130 tons only, so that accidental overloading — might conceivably occur, and cause a breakaway, if the engine were in front. Now sharp curves are always likely to cause derailment of a train if it is impelled from the rear, as it is obvious that if there is any tendency on the part of any vehicle to mount the rail, which is more likely on curves, this is intensified if pushed, and counteracted if pulled by an engine still on the rails. The serious nature of an accident through the breaking of a - drawbar in a train which is being pulled up such a severe grade as the provision of a rack implies, is evident, as there would be certain to be some small interval of time between the fracture of the bar and the full application of the brakes, during which the speed on such a grade would probably have attained a dangerous €XCeSss. The drawback of limiting the application of the rack to lines of easy curvature is a serious one, as it is just in the mountainous regions where such a contrivance is required that sharp curves are wanted to lessen works and to provide length, so as to moderate excessive grading. The Abt Company strongly recommend a minimum radius of 9 chains for 1 in 124 grade on our standard gauge, and this is the limit on the Abt standard gauge line Eisenerz to Vordenburg in Styria, where the grade is 1 in 14°7. However on the Visp Zermat 1 in 8 line in Switzerland, and the ~ Nilgiri in India, both on the metre gauge, push-up engines are used on 5 chain curves, which is much smaller in proportion than 9 chains on the 4 ft. 84 in. gauge, and there are other similar cases. RACK RAILWAYS. 93 On the Bhore ghat and Thul ghat adhesive inclines, where the ascent is from the Bombay flats to the tableland of the Deccan, there used to be, when I was there many years ago, frequent safety or catch sidings at intervals with reverse grades, the points of which were kept normally open to the siding, and were only closed by a pointsman, when the signal of the descending driver indicated that he had full control of his train, but whether this practice is now continued since the introduction of the more powerful modern brakes, I am not aware; and in this country of high wages, it would add considerably to the working expenses of the section. The Government Consulting Engineer in the case of the Nilgiri line, reported against the adoption of safety sidings, except in a _ modified form. His report states, ‘‘] am of opinion that, except when the features of the country are such as to make it possible at reasonable cost, to make a guard siding at the upper end of a station, of sufficient length and grade to stop a runaway with absolute safety, it is wiser to rely on the brakes, and to make quite sure of their efficiency. I believe | am correct in stating that catch sidings do not exist on any rack railway elsewhere. They cannot be laid in at any place where there is a rack. They were not ordered by the Board of Trade after the Snowdon accident.” I donot understand the statement that catch sidings cannot be laid where there is a rack, as points and crossings, as already described, are in use on several rack lines. _As to speed on the rack, it is stated that a velocity of 17 to 20: miles per hour, is easily and comfortably attained, but it is evident that on such a comparatively short length as ordinarily is required for the rack ascent, this matter is of minor importance. Two systems have been adopted in lines of which a rack section forms a part, firstly, that in which one or more rack engines are employed, only on the rack length, taking up trains brought to the foot of the incline by the ordinary adhesion engines, and 94 C. O. BURGE. delivering them over to other ordinary engines at the top, and vice versd, or possibly where the grade is not very severe, for the ordinary engine also to go through, assisting the rack one by adhesion only, even if the power exerted by the latter is only sufficient to take itself up. This system only works economically when the traffic is sufficient to employ fully the special rack engines, and if the grade is severe, it has the disadvantage of isolating from one another, as far as ordinary locomotive stock is concerned, the railway systems, if there are such, at each end of the incline. The other plan is to provide locomotives which combine the pinion and the adhesion principles, so as to be thoroughly effective in both, in order that they may go through, gearing the pinion when required in addition to their adhesion work, which latter up fairly steep grades will share the work to a small extent, in good weather. This system appears to gain more favour, as it is subject only to the comparatively minor defect of carrying the useless mechanism of the pinions, and the weight incident to them, over a possibly considerable mileage of easy grading where it is not wanted. In many cases the alternative presents itself of adopting for the ascent of a given height, a comparatively long adhesion line, or a short and steep rack one, and this is the phase of the question which only, up to the present, has had to be considered in this Colony. So that it becomes interesting to ascertain as nearly as possible, where both these methods are practicable, which is economically the best. An actual comparison from experience which would be trust- worthy is out of the question for no two lines have the same data or are under similar conditions. An attempt was made at this in a paper by Mr. R. Wilson’ as regards the cost of raising and hauling 1,000 foot tons by the rack system on the Hartz Moun- tain Railways, and on the Semmering incline with adhesion 1 Institution of Civil Engineers, Min. Proc., Vol. xcvt. RACK RAILWAYS. 95 respectively, both on the standard gauge, and shewing that the cost of this work, on the former line, was only 76°67 (mark the decimal) of that on the latter. But such comparisons as these as well as those on which so much ink has been wasted, and which are so frequently turning up with regard to the gauge and other questions, are, I think, not of much value, unless we know much more of the details than the writers ever give us, and even if we had every possible detail their application to widely different local circumstances would probably mislead us seriously. Comparisons, deduced from trials, between rival garbage destructors, pumps, oil engines, etc., etc., are being constantly put before the profession, but are very misleading as a rule, for the reason just given. There wasa trial, some years ago, between a compound and a simple locomotive, for which a special length of double line of railway was set apart. The two engines were provided with the same class of fuel and water, and ran side by side at the same time along the parallel roads, with the same speed, load, grades, curves, and wind resistance, and yet with all this, as nothing was said about the experience, ability, or even temper, of the respective drivers, on which the economical working of a locomotive so much depends, the results as to fuel consump- tion etc. could not be regarded as absolutely decisive. Moreover if severer grades, or other circumstances not met with in the trial, were encountered, the results might have been reversed. So, in the Hartz Mountain and Semmering case, where the other con- ditions were nothing like so similar, we ought to know all about the delicate question as to whether the respective traffic and loco- motive superintendents in each case were capable men or otherwise, apart from all questions of grades or racks. Sucha knowledge might upset the whole calculation, and turn the exact figure 76°6 into something very different, and possibly over to the other side of the comparison. It is evident that the mechanical effort of raising a given weight, to a given height, in a given time, is not affected by the adoption of a rack, as it is not a power in itself but only a means of apply- 96 C. 0. BURGE. ing power. If therefore we suppose a choice to be required between two proposed lines which have to surmount 1,000 feet, one 10,000 feet long with a rack grade of 1 in 10, and another 60,000 feet long with an adhesion grade of 1 in 60, the same load to be taken up in the same time, in each case, the expenditure in running, wages, and in consumption of fuel and water, will be practically the same in each case. On the rack line the journal and rail friction, apart from brake action, will be less, owing to the lesser number of revolutions of the wheels and of the shorter length of road, and the general maintenance of the road, apart from that caused by the rack, will be much less, but on the other hand there are the extra repairs ‘to the locomotive due to the pinions and gear, the wear and tear due to extra braking, the maintenance of the rack itself as well as the extra care required in that of the whole road, due to the proper working of the rack system, the cost of working the shunting stations at each end, and the indefinable extra expense always to be looked for in deal- ing with special apparatus inserted in the general ordinary system. On the whole, I should be inclined to think that the determining factor must be mainly the comparative cost of construction of the two lines, and the question of the method by which they are pro- posed to be worked. It is clear that if the rack section is, or is to be in the future, a link between two extensive railway systems, one in the low and the other in the high country, different work- ing conditions would arise from those which would exist if the rack line was a branch one pure and simple, with little or no possibility of extension beyond. In fact, the problem which would have to be solved in such an alternative as that just referred to, would be one in which the traffic and locomotive departments would have to be consulted as well as the engineer. | This paper might fitly conclude with the following extract from a report by a Commission appointed by the Italian Public Works Department, on this matter a few years ago, in which the leaning evidently is towards the rack in the case of such an alternative:— RACK RAILWAYS. 97 “« After having thoroughly studied this subject, we have come to the final conclusion, (1) That rack railways offer an excellent means of overcoming steep inclines, which are beyond the limit of adhesion, and that they make railway communication profitably possible in mountainous regions, where adhesion lines would require the investment of too much capital, and would not pay. “(2) That the slow speed of the rack locomotives is favourable for working the engines economically, and that the speed, though in itself slow, is relatively considered, about the same as the average speed on adhesion lines. “(3) That it is practicable, considered from a mechanical stand point, for cog-wheel locomotives to ascend grades from 34 to 25 per cent. (1 in 40 to 1 in 4) but that from an economical stand point considered, the grade on combination rack railways with large trattic should not exceed 7 per cent. (1 in 14:28). “(4) That the Abt system, for lines with large passenger and goods traffic is preferable to any other rack system. “(5) That the efficiency of a rack railway, even on very steep grades is considerable, but on grades of 6 to7 per cent. (1 in 16°66 to 1 in 14°28) its efficiency is equal to that of an adhesion line of 24 per cent. (1 in 40). “(6) That the total operating expenses of a combination rack railway are smaller than those of an adhesion one between the same points, hence that rack systems can favorably compete. with adhesive lines. “(7) That Italy contains many locations where the application of the Abt system would be advisable from a technical as well as from an economical point of view.” G—Auzg. 8, 1900. 98 C. W. DARLEY. NOTES ON DAMAGE CAUSED BY LIGHTNING TO SEAL ROCKS LIGHTHOUSE on 10rn JULY, 1900. By C.. W. DARLEY, M. Inst. C.E. [With Plate IT. ] [Read before the Royal Society of N. 8. Wales, August 8, 1900. ] THE Seal Rocks Lighthouse which is situated one hundred and seven miles north of Sydney stands ona bold projecting headland at an elevation of two hundred and fifty-eight feet over sea level. The lighthouse stands by itself on a well defined conical hill, the keeper’s quarters being built on a lower plateau, and distant about three hundred feet. The day the lightning occurred had been fine, but for two days previously heavy thunder clouds hung low over the locality, and there had been frequent peals of thunder, but apparently this condition was quite local, although it extended some distance inland, for at Bungwall six miles, and Bullahdelah about twenty miles inland, a similar atmospheric state was reported. At 3 p.m. the light tower was struck by lightning. . The tower is fitted with a solid copper lightning conductor 14 in. by #in. half round, and is attached at top to the copper roof of lantern. It passes down outside the lantern to the gallery, and then passes in through the lantern base, and down the inside of the tower, being secured to the wall with copper screws in lead plugs. Upon reaching the floor of the lamp room in basement, it passes out under the wall, and is then taken underground to earth, but where or how has not yet been ascertained. The electric fluid entered the vane on top of lantern dome (the ends of the feather being bent and fused and the base mold lifted 3 in.) thence passing down the lightning rod. A portion of the current was communicated to the electric bell wires on the middle DAMAGE CAUSED BY LIGHTNING TO SEAL ROCKS LIGHTHOUSE. 99 or green-light floor. These bell wires which lead from the lamp room to the principal and assistant keepers’ quarters are laid underground within | in. galvanised iron gas pipe for a distance of about 300 ft. The current apparently tried to make earth at three places, for thé pipe was burst out and the sockets split, the earth overlying the pipe at these places being blown away. At the houses the wires lead up verandah posts within a wood casing which was torn off and split into fragments. A sheet iron covering where the wires entered the houses was blown off, and in one case with such force that it cut a passage for itself through the top of a paling fence six feet away. Some stone flags on the verandah round the post were displaced, and generally there were many indications of the efforts of the lightning to make earth. To return to the lighthouse. The iron flooring, ceiling, and staircase of lantern must have been thoroughly charged, as numer_ ous spots appear where the paint has been blown off, varying in size from about i to | in. diameter, the bare iron underneath being fused and in some cases pitted, the iron ceiling underneath this floor is fastened to the iron girders with iron set screws, and the heads of eight of these screws have been blown off. ‘The battery for the electric bells (which stood on top of the lobby framing at entrance to the green light room) was destroyed and the wires Jeading downwards through the store room below have disappeared, one side of the lobby framing was shattered and the entire framing was wrenched away from its fastenings and moved some 4 in. out of place, the writing desk which was fixed on two iron brackets against the side of lobby was broken up as also was one of the iron brackets, the ink pot which stood on the desk was driven with such force against the reflector of the green light on the other side of the room, as to dent the reflector, but not to seriously damage it ; the clock was destroyed ; the glass in all the windows of this room was blown out, and four panes of glass in the main lantern were badly fractured. No injury was done to the dioptric apparatus or lamps of either the main light or the green light, and both remain in good working order. A copper screw which held 100 Cc. W. ellen: the lightning conductor to the wall was blown out and shows traces of fusion. In the oil-store in basement (which opens to the outside only and has no direct connection with the green light room by stair- case or otherwise) stood an open bucket containing about two gallons of kerosene oil, and in four tanks was stored about one hundred and fifty gallons of seal oil. The flash from the fused ' bell wires may have communicated with the kerosene oil and caused an explosion, for the entrance door was blown out and destroyed, also the door leading into small store under outer stone staircase, and the glass from all windows. The weight tube which is 11 in. diameter and constructed of stout zine about 9 gauge or .147 in. thick was blown to pieces for a length of about eight feet, part passing through the doorway and landing about forty feet from the building; the weight chain was clogged in places with fused metal. The lids of the oil-tanks were blown off and destroyed, and most of the draw-off cocks were injured, but the oil inside did not escape. The arched concrete floor between the cil room and the green-light room above appears to have been bodily driven upwards as it is cracked all round some three or four inches from the wall. The skirting and weight tube indicate that it lifted up at least a quarter of an inch. The floor of oil room is paved with asphalt, and this has been melted and destroyed. All the copper measures, buckets, oil-pump etc., which were in the room were injured, and one spare lamp for the main light was found embedded fast in the asphalt paving. The fire which followed destroyed all the work tables, tool chest, tank stand, ete. Probably the whole cause of the damage is due to the lightning conductor not making an efficient earth connection. No doubt it was unwise to lead the conductor part of the way down the inside of the tower, but this appears to have been occasionally adopted in English practice, and in the case of the Eddystone Lighthouse, and the Nash Low Lighthouse, where this was done, the towers were struck by lightning and damaged internally. DAMAGE CAUSED BY LIGHTNING TO SEAL ROCKS LIGHTHOUSE. 101 ' Another lesson to be learnt from this occurrence is the necessity for insulating the bell wires. The whole of the lantern is a metal structure with a copper roof, and the modern lighthouse practice is to attach the lightning conductor not directly to the vane on top, or the copper roof, but to attach it to the base of the lantern and thus depend upon the lantern collecting the current and conveying it to the conductor. The bell wires are invariably in metallic contact with some portion of the lantern, and therefore just as liable, as in the case in question, to be charged with lightning as the proper conductor. It is proposed to attach a copper band 14 in. by 3% in. to Seal Rocks Lighthouse from the copper dome of lantern, and lead it down outside and take it to earth, taking steps to so bury the earth plate and maintain it in a state of efficiency by leading the discharge from overflow and down water pipes over the pit where the plate is sunk. When replacing the bell wires stcps will be taken to carefully insulate them from any metallic contact in the lantern. The following reports as to the state of the weather on the coast north and south of Seal Rocks on the 10th July, have been kindly supplied to me by Mr. H. C. Russell, am.a., the Government Astronomer. The matter is of special interest inasmuch as it is most unusual for thunderstorms to occur on the coast in the month of July :— Port Macquarie, sixty-five miles north. Pilot reports—I neither saw or heard thunder that day. | Manning River, thirty-four miles north. Pilot reports—No- thing of any consequence took place near this station, but thunder was heard previous evening. Port Forster, Cape Hawke, eighteen miles north. Pilot reports— On day lighthouse was damaged the weather was very © threatening to the south-east, heavy squalls passing out to sea with distant rolling thunder, and at night there was bright lightning in the direction of Seal Rocks. About 11 p.m. a very heavy clap of thunder. iO 2 Cc. W. DARLEY. Stroud, about thirty-three miles inland, almost due west. Post- master reports—Heard no thunder about 3 p.m., but from 6 to 9 p.m. that evening I heard thunder and saw several flashes of lightning in the east towards Seal Rocks, and it struck me at the time it was a somewhat unusual thing to . have storms in July. . Port Stephens, forty-four miles south. Lighthouse keeper reports—That lightning and thunder were severe for about ten minutes on that day. From the foregoing notes it appears the storm was very local, the centre apparently passing inland over Sugarloaf Point, on which the Seal Rocks Lighthouse is erected. Added 3rd September, 1900. read, the earth terminal of the lightning conductor has been Since the foregoing paper was. opened up, and found to be in apparently good order, the sur- rounding soil being damp. The position of the earth plate is shewn on the accompanying drawing (Plate 2). A defective joint has been found in the copper conductor, which escaped notice during the first examination, being situated in. the green-light room behind the iron stairs. This was a lap joint, the two parts being held together by a screw passing through into a lead plug in the wall. It now transpires that the screw has been loose for some time, and when painting the walls, which is done almost every second year, the paint got in between the laps of the copper rod and thus broke continuity, causing the electric current to escape and thus do all the damage reported. LANGUAGE, ETC., ABORIGINES OF PORT STEPHENS. 103 THE LANGUAGE, WEAPONS ann MANUFACTURES or tHE ABORIGINES or PORT STEPHENS, N.S.W. By W. J. Enricut, B.a. Syd. (Communicated by R. H. Matuews, t.s., Memb. Corres. Soc. d’Anthrop. de Paris.) [With Plates III., IV.] [ Received Aug. 29. Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, Sep. 5, 1900. ] Last year I contributed a short paper to this Society on ‘‘ The Initiation Ceremonies of the Aborigines of Port Stephens.” On the present occasion it is intended to supply a grammar and vocabulary of the Kutthung, one of the tribes dealt with in my former article, and it is hoped that this attempt to preserve the language of the native tribes on this part of the coast of New South Wales may be found of some value. Two photographs, showing a number of weapons and other articles collected by me amongst these natives have been added, together with a short description of each. My best thanks are due to my old and valued friend, Mr. R. H. Mathews, of Parramatta, for introducing me to the principal men of the tribe, and for many practical suggestions whilst I was occupied in carrying on the work. In the system of spelling adopted, all the consonants have the same value asin English. The sounds of the vowels are repre- sented in the following words :— a = fate 1 = wit wu = gun aé@ = fan 7 = mite um = sure @ = far o = dot ou = now Ca seb 6.= note OY — Coy; ée =, meet oo = moon + Journ. Kuy. Soc. N. S. Wales, xxxiir., 115-124. 104 W. J. ENRIGHT. The letter g is hard in every case. Dh is pronounced nearly as th in that, with however, a slight, initial dsound. JW preceding y, as in Nyee, has the sound of # in cafion, thus Nyee is pronounced nearly as in-yeé, but quickly as one word. The final / is guttural, and somewhat like the ch in the German, but is not so marked. The accented syllable is shown in the usual way throughout the paper, and where there are two accented syllables in the same word, they are both marked. THe KutrHunc GRAMMAR. 1. The Kut’-thung dialect is spoken amongst the Aborigines living along the southern bank of the Karuah River and the south shore of Port Stephens. It was at one time spoken amongst the tribes lying between Port Stephens, West Maitland and Paterson, but with the exception of the Kutthung, they are now extinct. The adjoining tribes were the Gummigingal, inhabiting the territory on the north shore of Port Stephens and the Karuah ; the Warringal,’ living between Telegherry and Pipeclay Creeks ; the Warrimee, living between Telegherry Creek, Port Stephens, the Sea Shore and the Hunter River: the Garawerigal,’ between the Myall River and the sea shore; the Yeerunggal,* about the Myall Lakes; the Birrimbai, in the neighbourhood of Bungwall Flat ; and the Birroonggal,’ on the Myall River. 2. There are only two numbers, the singular and plural, and each number has three persons. The personal pronouns are used for ?> which has no real existence the present tense of the verb ‘to be,’ in that form e¢.g. “Nut/-w4” is the equivalent, not only for “I,” but also of “I am.” ‘Yeé-ni-ar” is the Kutthung term for ‘“‘thou art” as well as for “thou,” and in this latter sense in forming the future and past tenses. * People of the Spear. * People of the Streams—(In Proc. Roy. Soc N.S.W., Vol. xxxirt., p. 124, I have erroneously called this tribe the Doowalligal) % People of the Sea. * People of the long and narrow piace. ° People of the deep river. LANGUAGE, ETC., ABORIGINES OF PORT STEPHENS. 105 Present Tense—Mur'-rook = Good. Nut’-w& mur’-rook, I am good Yeé-ni-ér mur’-rook, Thou art good _Na-ar mur-rook He is good Nyeé-un mur’-rook We are good Noo-rar mur’-rook You are good Bara mur’-rook They are good Past Tense—Yer'-ri-kee = Bad. Yer'-ra-kee nut’-wa gut’-ta-lié, I was or have been bad Yer-ra-kee yeé-ni-ar gut’-ta-l4 Thou wast or hast been bad Yer’-ra-kee ni-ar gut’-ta-la He was or has been bad Yer’-rd-kee nyeé-un gut’-ta-li We were or have been bad Yer’-ri-kee noé-rar gut -ta-la You were or have been bad Yer’-ri-kee ba-ri gut’-ta-li They were or have been bad g My Mur’-rook Mur’-rook Mur’-rook Mur’-rook Mur’-rook Mur’-rook Future Tense. nut’-wa gun’-yee I will or shall be good yeé-ni-ar gun’-yee Thou wilt or shalt be good nu-ar gun’-yee’ He will or shall be good nyeé-un gun’yee We will be good noo-rar gun’-yee You will or shall be good ba’-ra. gun’yee They will be good 3. The articles “a” and “the” are not translated. 4. Personal pronouns; possessive.—These are always placed before the noun they agree with. Example J.—\. Bee-num’-bé Bar-ra-kun’. 2. E-go6-bA Kun’-ni. 3. Bur’-rub-ba gum’-mi. 4. Noon’-gum-bah mir’ree. Translation—1. Your boomerang. 2. This yamstick. 3. My spear. 4. Her dog. 5. Nouns.—The nominative is generally placed foremost in the sentence, the objective usually follows it, and the verb governing the object is placed last. Example II.—1. Mir’-ree goo bud-jeé-li. 2. Nut’-wa ba-ra bun-yil’-a. 3. Nut’-wa koor’-ee tod-ree-al’-la. 4. Mut’-too koor’-ee bud-jeé-la. 106 W. J. ENRIGHT. Translation—1. The dog bit him. 2. I struck them. 3. I speared a man. 4. The ‘black snake’ bit a man. 6. Nouns, possessive.—The possessive is formed by adding ‘“‘go00'-ba ” to the possessing noun. Example III.—i. Kod-noong-goo-b& bar-ri-kun’, 2. Wam’- bo-gn-goo-ba nimbik. 3. Bing’-hi-goo-ba gum’-mi. 4. Kidn- goo-ba mir’-ree. Translation—1. The old man’s boomerang. 2. The kangaroo’s (doe) bone. 3. The eldest brother’s spear. 4. The woman's dog. 7. Nouns, ablative.—The ablative is formed by adding ‘‘o0o” to the noun. In cases where the final letter of a word is a vowel, the vowel is dropped. Example [V.—1. Nut’-wa koor’-ee bar'-ra-kundodéd bun-yil’la. 2. Nut’-wa koor’-ee goot’-the-roo bun-yil’-1a. Translation —1. I struck a man witha boomerang. 2. [ struck a@ man with a club. 8. Verbs.—The verb is without any change in the present tense for either number or person. The same rule applies to the past, which is formed by adding ‘lla” or “1a” to the present tense. The present participle is formed by adding ‘‘llin” or “lin” to the present tense. Euphonic changes are also occasionally made in the final syllable to meet this addition. There is no separate form of the verb for the future, which is indicated by suffixing “nuh” to the nominative agreeing with the verb. Present. Past. Mur’-roo-ma (make) Mur-roo-ma-]ai (made) Bun’-yee (strike) Bun-yil'-la (struck) Yal'-l6-wa (sit down) Yal’-l6-wal’-la (sat down) Bud-jeé (bite) Bud-jeé-]4 (bit) Boon'-ma (steal) Boon'-ma-la (stole) Boo-ba (le down) Boo-ba’-]a (laid down) Bit’-yee (drink) Bit’-yeel-la (drank) LANGUAGE, ETC., ABORIGINES OF PORT STEPHENS. 107 Present Participle. Mur’-roo-ma-lin (making) Bun-yil-lin (striking) Yal’-l6-wal’-lin (sitting down) Bud_jeé-lin (biting) Boon’-ma-lin (stealing) Boo-ba’-lin (lying down) Bit’-yeel-lin (drinking The verbs have no passive, but the sense of the passive is rendered by means of the indicative. Example V.—1. Wut'-t& koor’-ee win’-yal-la. 2. Tod-mul-la kidn ku-reel-lé. 3. Bud’-jee nw’-ar-nuh. 4. Kut’-ti nut’ wa-nuh? wun’-da doo’-kun kut’-ti bar’-ee-A4. 5. Nut’-wa gum’-mi mur’-roo-ma-lin. 6. Bing’-hi-goo-ba bar-raé-kun’ goo bun-yil’-la. 7. Nut’-wa beé-yar-goo-ba yuk’ree boon’- ma-lé. 8. Nod-kwum-ba nur-rin kidn-goo-b&i bor-ta’ dun-yil’-]a. Translateon—\|. A man was burnt in the fire (/7¢. fire burnt a man). 2. The woman was drowned in the creek (/zt. creek drowned the woman). 3. I will bite. 4. I will go when the sun sets (dé. I will go when the sun goes from me). 5. I made a spear. 6. I struck him with the eldest brother’s boomerang. 7. I stole my father’s wommera. 8. His eldest sister ate the woman’s food. 9. Adjectives.— Adjectives are generally placed after the noun they qualify — Koor’-ee mur’-rook, a bad man; kidn yer’-ra-kee, a bad woman. The comparative is formed by adding “bing” to the adjective, and the superative by the addition of ‘‘beé-rang,” signifying “very”? — mur-rook, good ; mur-rook-bing, better ; mur’-rook-beé-rang, best yer -ra-kee, bad; yer’-ra-kee-bing, worse; yer -ra-bee-beé-rang, worst. 1h is guttural, see explanation hereinbefore. 108 W. J. ENRIGHT. 10. Abverbs.— Adverbs may be formed from adjectives by means of the suffix “boo ”— Yer'-ra-kee, bad ; yoo-ra, slow ; Yer'-ra-keé-boo, badly; yoo-ra-boo, slowly. 11. Prepositions.—Prepositions are placed after the nouns they govern. Some are separate words, and others are simply suffixes. Examples of the latter are “oo,” which has been previously referred . to as forming the ablative, and “gwa” meaning among, also “numbar” meaning at, and ‘‘in-ge-ra” signifying with. Example VI.—1. Beé-yar mur’-rook koop’-pal-eé-a-gil-lin goog’-e- roo. 2. Nit-ar gum’-mi ga-bal-lin nyeé-un num’-ba. 3. Nyeé-un nur-ra gub’-bee-rung kut’-ti. 4. Koop’-pal-eé-a ba-ra-nuh yoon’-go god-4r. 5. Wot’-too mur’-ralin dheer’- ra-gwa. 6. Nut’-wa bar-in-ge-ra kut’-ti. 7. Kidn koor’-ee boo-larng’ kut’-ti. 8. Wot’-too pur’-rup& wok’ka yAl’-l06- wal'lin. 9. Darn’-dee yal’-l6-wal’-lin wit-tuk bara. 10, Ky'-in-dub’-ba yal’-16-wal’-lin wit’-tuk bara. Translation—\. The good father is running to the hut. 2. He is throwing a spear at us. 3. Wego from the camp. 4. They will run up to the mountain. 5. The opossum is sitting among the branches. 6. I go with them. 7. The man and woman go together. 8. The opossum is sitting on top of the hut. 9. They are sitting on this side of the creek. 10. They are sitting on the other side of the creek. 12. Conjunctions.—Conjunctions are ‘“‘dil’-ling,” meaning also, and “ya-ree,” meaning or. Example VII.—1. Noo-ka bar'-ee-& bar-ra-kun’ gum’-mi dil’-ling. 2. Na’-n&i wom’-m6 koor’-ee y4-ree kidn ya’-ree. Translation—1. Give me a boomerang and also a spear. 2. Who is the fatter —the man or the woman ? 13. The negative is expressed by means of ‘:gooran” (not) and the imperative is expressed by adding ‘“‘yung” or ‘‘ni” to the verb. Dun’-yee, eat ; Koop’-pal-eé-4, run ; Dun’-yee-yung’, don’t eat ; Koop’-pal-ee’-a-ni, don’t run. LANGUAGE, ETC., ABORIGINES OF PORT STEPHENS. 109 14. The interrogative is expressed by means of ‘‘weéd-yuh,” e.g. Weé-yuh mur’-rook, is it good ? This word appears to be used in asking a question concerning the quality of anything. There are other words which are used to inquire concerning time, manner, place, etc., which will be found in the vocabulary in the succeeding pages. 15. Numerals.—The numerals are really only two, viz. ‘‘ wok’- kool,” one, and “‘bul-ld-ra,” two ; but by compounding these the Kutthung is able to count as far as five. Any greater number than five he expresses by “doocalla,” a great many. VOCABULARY OF THE KutrHuNG LANGUAGE. The words in the following vocabulary have all been spelt phonetically and the translation of them into English is given as literally as possible. In some instances the English word will be found to have two equivalents in the Kutthung. This I think has been caused through tribes coalescing, as their numbers dwindled away and tribal boundaries were effaced before the march of civilization. By this means each new addition to the tribe would inevitably mean a slight addition to the language. The reader will please note that “d” and ‘“‘¢” are interchangeable as also are “g” and “k.” Kutthung. English equivalent. | Kutthung. English equivalent. Beé-yar, father Ber’-ri-ma, the teal Boor’-i, baby boy Brod-ee-gee, to swim Boor'-1 Tod-kal ie (lit.b¢g baby)| Brod-ee-gal’-it, whip snake Bit-theé, o/d woman Bung-hi, to-day, now But-tong’, black Buk-oo-ee, meat Bur-ra, white or light coloured Bud-geéla, bit (past tense) But’too, smoke But-tig-yee’, watile tree Bur’-ri, earth, territory belonging | Bur-roé-ma, mahogany Bin’-dul, beard [to a tribe | Be-lorn’, stingaree Bee, the wrist Bun-yeé, to strike Buk-a, the knee Bunn-yil’-Ja, struck Bar-ra-kun' returning boomerang | Boo-ba, to lie down Bur-rid’, the wallaby Bur’-rung, red Book’-ut, bandicoot Booé-mer-1, grass tree Bul’-boo, kangaroo rat But-teé-yuk, white ant 110 W. J. ENRIGHT. Kutthung. English equivalent. | Kutthung. English equivalent. Bir’-rum Bir’-ra, bird’s nest fern Bo6o-ra, short Bir’-rin, wide Buk’-koo-wee, short Bir’-reon, to break Boon-dheé-la, to fall Bin’-dhee, stomach Bur’-rin, a net Buk’-& Buk-a, savage Bur’-oo-lit’, rosella parrot Buk’-4, angry, to quarrel Bun-bee-al’-la, to drop on ground Bum-'bee wut'-ta, to make fire Bo6-took, soft, smooth Boon'-ma, quiet Bar’-koon, a coward Bir’-ree-wel, brave Bo6-1, breath Bing’-hi, youngest brother Bool'-bung, the larger circle at the keeparra ground Bar’-ré-wa, a large bullroarer used in keeparra ceremony Bort-ta, food Beé-rang, very Bun-di-leel’-la, cué But’-thoon, a dilly bag Bir’-roo-yee, fish-hook Boo-ee-buh, to copulate Bil’-lung-ree, the black oak tree Boor’-rool, heavy Bun’-ga Bug’gun, flock pigeon Bool’gee, dry Bor Bor, a circular piece of bark cut off a tree and used asa flying target Boor’-ro-wang, female of the Bul-lo’-ra, two | Macrozamia Bul-lo’-ra Wok’-kool, three Bul-lo’-ra Bul-lo’-ra, four Bul-lo’-r4 bul-lo’-r4 wok’-kool, five Ra-ra, they, them, those Ba’-lee, to Bar-in-gin-in’-da, theor Bar-in-gin-in’-da-wee, these Bee-num’-ba, your Bum-ba’Ja, married (past tense) Boon'-dhee, a club used both for throwing ond striking Bool’-gee bur-ri, a drought (lit. dry earth ) Boo-larng', together Boon’-ma, to steal bee-ram’-mer, marks made at Keeparra on the body of the initiate Bur-run gee, the native squirrel Boom ’-be-ra, the testicles Bir’-ree-wel goo-ran, weak (lit. not strong ) Bit’-yee, to drink Ba-rel’-la, a fly Bur’-rin, a net Boon'-ger-al, a fight Bot'-yee, to carry Boon-da/-gee, to swallow Ba-ra, down Ban, aunt Bil’-lin, yellow Beé-yar Goo-ran, fatherless Bur’-rub-ba, my 3uk-kin’, half Din’-na, the foot Doon'-ga, the right arm [large Doé-kal or tod-kal, great, big, Doon’-dee, small coolamon Dir’-ra, a tooth Doon’-git, carpet snake Dut’-tee, dead Doon’-ge-ra, pelican Dod-nong, the eel Dur’-ra-ra, dry Dun’-yee, eat Dhur’-ra, the leg Dhap-pee, the chin Dod-mu, to keep Dhun’-barn, strong Dun’-gee, to tre Dhur’-oo-bal-lee, to leak Dhum-but, thirsty LANGUAGE, ETC., ABORIGINES OF PORT STEPHENS. Kutthung. English equivalent. Dun’-ga, to shew Doon’-gal, tears Dhur’oo-bal-lee kun’-ge-ra, to bleed (lit. to leak blood) Dhir’-ri-bwee, oyster Dheé-ra, a branch Dun'dul, between Darn’-dee, on this side of Dhub’-ba, whilst Dir’-ree Dir’-ree, rough Doé-ping, @ mosquito Dip-oon’-gi, a stone used for sharpening shell fish-hooks Dheé-ka, the native companion Dhur’-i-ee, thin Dul'dee, to kick Dhook-kee, to rise Dool’-bee, a pointer consisting of a stick lashed crosswise toan upright and pointing in the direction that people have gone . Dhal’-gi, a@ minor initiation ceremony Dir’-rawa, a rib Do6-kal-la, a lot, great many Dreé-al-ung, speared Dun’-dul-Ja, narrow Dheé-wee, the navel Doé-roong, brown Dung’-ga, the vagina Dhoo-ree, straight Do6-wa-kee, to search Doon’-ga, to know Dhir’-roo-la, dangerous Dhur’-roo-me-ree, a rainbow Dil’-ling, also E-go0-ba, this Ek’-a-ba, good-bye G3-ro6-wa, sea Go-on, mangrove tree Gool’-be ree, a few Goo-la, the native bear Ga-long, going Gum-wi, a spear | Kutthung. Piel English equivalent. Gool-ya, the penis Ga-lun-gun’, the green tree-snake Goo-ba, of Gun’-gul-ba, black comorant Ga’-ra, the schnapper Gra-bun, groper, (a fish) Gur’-ra wur’-ra, jew fish Gur-um’-bee, white gum Go0d-ee-wee, shark Gir’-um-bit, salt water Gir’-ra-gar, honey Gip-pee, wet God-jee ik’koo, come here (the expression of greeting used among the Kutthung) Goo6-ra, long Go06-nood, old God-roo-mul, young Gul’-lu, cheeks Gur’-ri, to choke Ghin'-doo-ee, turkey Gir Gir, king parrot God-wok, hard Gun'-ya, hut God-bree-gi, hungry Goo6-rum-ba, to tell lies Gool’-bee, a noise Gra-bi-na, to steal Gir-ru, alive Gun’-gil-lee, to weep Gir-ree-boo, to lose God-ee-wut, shower of rain Gur’-rel-bool’-lin, to dig Goo, him Gool-gi, pathway leading from Boolbung to Goonambung Goo-lum’-bra, the first man, now the presiding genius of the Keeparra Go6é-nan-duk’-yer, (lit. stercun humanum edens) the small bullroarer Goon’-da-ree, the (angophora) ir'-ree-poot, spotted gum apple tree 112 W. J. ENRIGHT. Kutihung. English equivalent. Gir’-rum-b6, dying Gir’-rung, green (unripe) Goor’-rum-bal’-in, 20 gammon Gir’-rungh, a leaf Gul’-bee-meé-nung, silent Gun’-dim-mur’-ra, barbed spear made of hard wood Gut’-ta-la, was or have been Gun’-yee, sha/l or will Goo-reel, the large shield God-ge-ree, hut Gub’-bee-rung, from, from the direction of Gwa (also kwa), a suffix ndica- ting among Goo-ar, up to Gal, a people, a tribe Gun-'dee-wi, the flying fox God-ran, no, not Gur’-rool, perspiration Gin’-du, whilst Jik’-ker-a, white ironbark Kit’. chung, hair Kidn, woman Koor’-ee, man Kod-noong, old man Koong-un’, flood Ko6-ee-wun, rain Kur’-ru-won, swmmer Kir’-ra-kur’-ra, autumn Koor'’-ra, night Keé-wong, moon Kun’-ge-ra, bluod Kreé-pun, spotted gum Kur’-ree-ki, myrt/e Keé-la, to micturate Koo-yuk, canoe Kur’-run-gi, black duck Kow’-wer-ree, brown snake Kow’-al-ga-lit, diamond snake Kur’-roon-gee, to jump Kur’-ree Kur’-ree, fast Kur’-ra-ka, mouth Kut’-yee, to cut Kut’-ta, to drop out of your hand | Kutthung. English equivalent. Kok’-&-too, cockatoo Kut’-te-ra, fast Kur -rup-pa, loins Kur’-run-gee, a fool Kur’-roo-ma, to climb Kut’-ti, to go Ky’-in-dub’-ba, on ie sede of Kup'-p6-ee, an egg Kup’-poon- dee, hut Kun-ni, a@ yane stick K6-kee-dun, come here Kil’ lung, a feather Kup'-pé, bye and bye Kur’-14-gup, soon Kod-ye-roo, a bone used for combing the hair Kur-re-ki, bush myrtle Koon’ -dool, root of a tree Kun-da, a Oe s nest Kur-re-keé, to fetch, to carry Koot’-thee wit'-tee, to sing Krum’-moon, clouds: Kor’-oo-ba, the furtescue fish IXeé-par-ra, the initiation cere- mony of the Kutthung Kit-tee, the large coolamon Koov he: ra, a nullah or club Kin-yarngh, pleased Koow’-ba, to-morrow Koom -bug-ga, day after to-morrow Kur Zalal drowned | Ky’-in-goo, over Kow’-wan, uncle Kut’-thung, to spit Ka’-pee, to throw Khir’-roodn, itching Ko6 ee-puk’-kee, to smell Kuyp-paw, stop Koo Ja-hee, to snare Kyiv, across Kooyp-; al-eé-a, runs Mit’-ree, dog Mur’-re-kun, girl Mich’-ee-gain, (attle garl Mul’-boo, thunder LANGUAGE, ETC., ABORIGINES OF PORT STEPHENS. 113 Kutthung. English equivalent. | Kutthung. English equivalent. Mun-ni, séar Mut’-te-ra, hand Mik’-kong, the eye Min’-gin, the liver Mur’-rook, good, happy Mur-rung, nice, beautiful Mun-um-ba, red gum tree Mun-nung, sand Mil’-lhin, mud Mun-noong, a hill Munyil-la, gave Ma-ning, to take Mur’-roo-ma, to make Ma’-ril-la, caught Ma, the finger Mit’-tee, small ‘ Mur’-ro-ma-la, made Min’-4-g6, why : Mut’-too, black snake Moé-nul-gook, death adder Mim-m6, blind Mur-ra-lin, climbing Mur/-rom-bod, thank you Min’-ya-po, something Ma'-poo, widower Ma4hl’-gun, a spider Ma-koom-bal'-lin, nodding the Mak’-ree, porcupine [head Muk*-kee muk’kee, lazy, useless Mo6-ree-ung-gub -ba, how far Mut-tuk, the fishing spear Muk’-kun, small species of lizard Mug~gin, a bulb found growing with wild potatoes Mur-reen’, a star Mit-tuk, sore Mur-rin, sharp Mur-ra-yung, don’t go Mil’lin Mil’lin, @ swallow Mah -poon-gun, a widow Mi-kin, a long time ago Mi-poo-yoo, a mullet Mi-ee, the point of a spear Num-ba, suffix signifying “at” Na-ya, mother Nut-yoon, fresh water Nur-rin, eldest sister Nun-na, elbow Nim’-bik, bone Narng, nose Nur-ree-ain, ear ‘No6-ree-on, hot Nut-wa, I Noo-a, he Nyeé-un, us (we) Nod-ya, to ask Na-na, who Na-na, yee, who there? lit. what who are you Na-num-ba-yee, whose Nooé-kwum-ba, his Noon’-gum-ba, her Nod-koo-wom'-ba, that Nup-pun, breasts (female ) Nup-pung, milk Nun’-doo, grass tree Nyeé-hu, yes Nur-run, a hole Nah’-ka fo see Nur’-rewin, the lyre bird Nur-roon, kidneys Noo-ree, noisy 1Nur’-ra, @ camp Nap-poo, sleep Nuj-ee-leé-la, possessed Nur’-ree, the leg No-ya, at once Nook’-kil’-la, to swap Nur-ré-win, flat piece of country Nuj-ee-roo, a small bag for hold- ing piece of colourless quartz given to initiates Nun’-na-yook, there Noon-ghee, nephew 1Tn Journ. Roy. Soc. N.S. Wales, ously called this “ ulra.” H—Sep. 5, 1200. Vol. xxxui., p. 119, [ have errone- 4 | Wie de Kutthung. English equivalent. ENRIGHT. Kutthung. English equivalent. Noon’-gha-gun, nzece Na-ya4 God-ran, motherless Nyee Nyee, merry Nut’-ta, shallow Noot’-ta, to taste Nur’-run-geé, remember Noo-ka, give O6-pep-poo, again O6-pik-kee, to send Pur -ru-pa, a hut Pook’-kul, a knot Poor -roo-pung, smooth Pod-ee-pir’-ra, tired Pod-pur-ra, close Ping’-gun, lightning Por’-oo-look, a flea Pup-puh, close To6-ra-kee, at Tur’-roo-ka, handle of stone toma- Tod-toong, narrow [hawk Ti-ree, the fighting boomerang Tuk’-ke-ra, cold Tul-lun, the tongue T4-ral-leé, hail 'Tod-kee War-ree, soon Tod-kun, the sun Tod-mul-la, a creek Tuk’-kut, a perch U-lit’-tin, after Wun’-da, where Wol’long, for Way -in-gun, will walk W ot’-too, an opossum Wok’-ka, on top of Woor-roon, loud ‘Wung’-ga, to dance ‘Wor'-rine, flat Wot-thee, mad ‘Wor-ri-keé, to see Wom’-md, fat Wah-kun, a crow Wy -yee, a pup W dr’-ri-pi-meé-nung, be qutet Wee-ya, to tell Wong’-gha, a corroboree Wol-lun, the head Wol’lun yer’-ra-kee, a head-ache Weé-yuh, was it? (word of interrogation) Wol'-loo-ya, a large kangaroo Woong-un, the youngest sister Wok’-kha, air Win’-nd, weé-na, spring Wil’ling, the lip Wur-ring, the left arm Wok'-kul, the shoulder Wut -ta, fire Win'-yal-la, burnt (past tense) Wam-boyn, kangaroo Wit'-too, the neck Wor’-rin, a stream Wok’-kool, one Wit-ta-kit, the emu Wal’-lin-gul’-g&, the native bee Wod6-ya, to hear Wil’-la, @ stone W114, black cockatoo Won’-gul-lin, a corroboree Woo-rod-ma, the westerly wind Wor-ree-d, a young swan Wun.-'gi, how Warra gub-ba gud, pregnant Woor’-roé-bung, the jew lizard Weeé-ree, to sweep Wor-rung’, frost Wun-na, to listen Wun’-yim-b6 wun-yim-bé, always Wad-yee-ma, to mimic Yer -ra-kee, bad, ill, sick Yoon’-goo, a mountain Yal’-l6-wal’-lin, sitting Y4-ree, or Yar'-rin, light (in weight) Yar’-ruh, to swim Yur-reel, a cloud Yal’-lowa, the north-east Yer-reé-4, evening Yod-kul, the heart Yup-pee, the ti-tree Yuk’-ree, the wommera LANGUAGE, ETC., ABORIGINES OF PORT STEPHENS. 115 Kutthung. English equivalent. | Kutthung. English equivalent. Yur-ra, the sky Yeé-boo, to finish Yum/'-bine, the scrotum | Yood-lun, to skin Yu-ka, the flathead fish Ya-ka, mahogany Yun'na, to walk Y4-ree, or Yoo-ra Yoo-ra, slow Yoom-broo, in Yen -dhee-ree, the eyebrows Yar’ ree-num-ba, our Yal-lowa, to sit down Yit'-tuh, blunt Yoo-ra-ba-leé 1a, to hide Yoon’-nur-ra, awkward ‘Yin-da-meé-nor, right Yer!-a-kee Yer’-raikee, painful WEAPONS ETC. OF THE KUTTHUNG. The whole of the articles here described with the exception of Fig. 20 Plate 3, have been collected during wanderings amongst the aboriginals upon the shores of Port Stephens. Plate No. 3. Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6, are boomerangs of the returning variety. They are about eighteen inches'in length from point to point and have a maximum width of two inches. Fig. 7 is a fishing spear composed of a shaft made from the stem of the grass tree, seven feet six inches in length, and four pieces of hardwood twenty-five inches in length lashed together, but with the points separated by means of pieces of wood thrust in between them, and fastened into the shaft by means of gum and twine. They use this spear in catching the large fish. Going into the water as far as he can to use the spear with effect, the native stands like a statue holding the spear obliquely in poised hands ready to strike his prey as-it passes. Standing motionless, he is soon surrounded by fish, and the first that passes his feet is pierced by a certain powerful thrust. Sometimes they make use of a boat (the bark canoe is never used nowadays) from which they spear the fish. Fig. 8 is the wommera or throwing stick used for the purpose of throwing spears. It is made of two pieces of wood the larger of which is thirty-two inches in length, with a breadth of three inches at the end which is held in the hand and tapering toa & 116 W. J. ENRIGHT. point at the other end, whereon is lashed a sharpened piece of wood, three and a half inches in length, projecting at a slight angle. The point of this smaller piece of wood is inserted into the end of the shaft of the spear, which is held between the thumb and forefinger of the thrower, the broad flat end of the wommera all the while resting in the palm of the hand. Fig. 9 is the Bar’-ro-wa or large bullroarer used in the closing part of the Keeparra' ceremony. It is twenty four inches in length with a maximum breadth of three and one half inches. Fig. 10 is a spear composed of three pieces, a sharpened hard- wood point twenty-four inches in length, thrust into thin stem of grass tree about thirty-four inches in length, and this in turn is. fastened into a shaft of like material about six feet four inches in length. Itis thrown at game or other objects by means of the wommera previously described, Figs. 11 and 12 are heads of basaltic rock. Fig. 13 is also of basaltic rock, but unlike the two former implements appears to have been used without the usual wooden handle, and is probably a chisel. Fig. 14 is a whet stone used for sharpening the points of the shell fish hooks, and is of hard eruptive rock. It is four and a half inches in length, one and three-quarter inches in breadth at one end, and tapers at the other end to a point, which has unfor- tunately been broken off the specimen in my possession. It has. a uniform thickness of five-eighths of an inch. Fig. 15 represents a shield of mangrove wood. It is thirty inches in length with a breadth of nine inches. The handle which is a green twig of the mangrove is fastened by boring two holes three inches apart in the centre of the shield, and inserting into each hole an end of the twig, the fibres of which are then separated on the face of the shield. This instrument is covered with pipe- clay and adorned with three red stripes. 1 See “ Initiation Ceremonies of the Aborigines of Port Stephens, New South Wales.’’—Journ. Roy. Soc. N.S. Wales, Vol. xxx111., p. 121. 3 LANGUAGE, ETC., ABORIGINES OF PORT STEPHENS. 117 Figs. 16 and 17 are waddies used not only as clubs, but for throwing at small animals. The former called ‘‘ Boon’-dhee” is twenty-six inches in length, and made of the wood of the ironbark. The latter called ‘‘Goothera,” is made of the wood of the myrtle and is thirty-five inches in length. Fig. 18 is a Coolamon made of mangrove wood. It is seven inches in diameter with the same depth internally, and is used for carrying water or holding liquid of any kind. Fig. 19 is the Koo-pin’ and is made of the wood of the black oak. It is used for warding off spears, and also to hinder the flight of an opponent. Fig. 20 is a fighting boomerang, mace of myall wood, and I believe is from the north-western part of New South Wales. Plate 4. Fig. 1 A boomerang (tu-ree) of the type that does not return when thrown. . Figs. 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6, Boomerangs (Bar-raé-kun’) of the kind which can be made return when thrown. . Fig. 7 Yamstick (kun’-ni) used by the “gins” in digging for roots, and is also their favourite weapon. Fig. 8, Shield (Ben ‘dool-gun). Fig. 9, A waddy called “ Bin’-na-pin” by the Kutthung. Figs. 10, 11, and 12, Stone axe heads. Figs. 13 and 14, Stone axes with heads of a dark eruptive rock and handles made of a piece of vine, which is doubled around the head and the two portions are then fastened together with bark, and the head made more secure with wax or gum. Fig. 15, Kod-ye-ro6, a sharpened kangaroo bone used for combing the hair. Fig. 16, A waddy of one of the Hunter River, (N.S. W.) tribes. Fig. 17, The God-nan-duk’-yer whose use will be found described in “ The Initiation ceremonies of the Aborigines of Port Stephens N.S. Wales,” herein before referred to. 118 . R. T. BAKER. The other articles manufactured by the Aborigines are the canoe, fishing net, dilly bag, stone knife, belt of spun opossum hair, barbed spear of hardwood, fish hook of shell, and a small bag used for carrying the pieces of crystal bestowed on the young men when they have been initiated at the Keepara. For the arrangement of the weapons, and the preparation of the two plates attached hereto, Iam indebted to Mr. W. J. P. Craik of West Maitland, N. S. Wales. Note on an OBSIDIAN “BOMB” From NEW SOUTH WALES, By R. T. Baker, F.L.s., Curator, Technological Museum, Sydney. [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, September 5, 1900. | AT the present time much attention is being given by Scientists in Europe in regard to the origin of Moldavites (the generic name by which obsidian ‘‘bombs” or ‘“‘buttons” are now generally known), and this is one of the reasons I must give for bringing the specimen under the notice of this Society. Another reason is that this specimen of obsidian ‘‘bomb” differs in shape from those usually found in Eastern Australia, a fact that may be of some interest and use to the savants in their researches on these remarkable bodies. The specimens which have been recorded from Eastern Australia are (with one exception) button-shaped, with one, two or three flanges, although occasionally an elongated form of these occurs. The one obtained by Charles Darwin when visiting Australia in the Beagle 1832-6, was a particularly good specimen of this — type of “button or bomb.” It was presented to him by Sir Thomas OBSIDIAN BOMB FROM NEW SOUTH WALES. 119 Mitchell, who probably found it in the interior of New South Wales. Messrs. W. H. Twelvetrees, r.c.s. and W. F. Petterd, C.M.Z.S.,1 record a “bomb,” which from their description somewhat resembles the one recorded in this note, for “it is without the flange or beading, which is apparently characteristic of the buttons obtained on the east coast.” My specimen from its shape etc., therefore, is also comparable to those known from West Australia, but unfortunately it is not perfect—one-third or more of the whole having been broken off, so that more correctly speaking it is only a portion of a “bomb” that is now to be macroscopically described. It is worthy of note that of the two belonging to this type of bomb, and now recorded from Eastern Australia and Tasmania, one should have been found in Tasmania (loc. cit. ), and the other in New South Wales. This latter specimen, the subject of this note, is rather bright looking, and not so dull as those I have examined from Western Australia, although however, it strongly resembles them in every other respect. It has a blackish, very dark bottle-green, glassy appearance, particularly so at the large fracture, which shows a little fire on the edge. It measures about 1 inch in diameter and 3 inch in thickness, and might be described in general terms as sub-globose in shape. There is quite an absence of concentric rings, flanges, or flutings round the edges, which are very thick and rounded. The whole of the surface is irregularly indented with gas pores and broken globulites of varying size, and these no doubt occur throughout the mass, although only a few are exposed on the big fracture above referred to. Viewed under a lens, the surface has much the appearance of that of many meteorites, such as for instance, the Thunda meteorite from Queensland and others. The specific gravity is 2°-456 at 15° C., almost identically the same as the one described from Tasmania, (loc. cit.) and showing it to be “Obsidian” (glassy varieties of rhyolitic and trachytic rocks) and 1 Roy. Soc., Tas., 1897, p. 42. 120 R. T. BAKER. not basaltic-glass which is usually classed as tachylyte and has a higher specific gravity. This specimen was discovered about twenty feet below the surface about a mile and a half from O’Connell near Bathurst, by Messrs. B. Walker and Lester, when sinking for gold. I am indebted to Messrs. Rumsey and Tremain of the Technical College for the photograph, and to Mr. Henry G. Smith for the specific gravity. MARRIAGE anp DESCENT amone tote AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES. By R. H. Maruews, ts., Corres. Memb. Anthrop. Soc., Washington, U.S.A. [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, October 8, 1900. | In describing the social structure of a native Australian community the first matter calling for attention is the classification of the people into two primary divisions, called phratries, or groups— the men of each phratry intermarrying with the women of the Opposite one, in accordance with prescribed laws. 1. The natives of some tracts of country are segregated into the two phratries referred to, without any further subdivision. 2. In other locali- ties there is a partition of each phratry into two sections, making four divisions of the tribe. 3. Among the inhabitants of other districts there are four subdivisions of each phratry, giving a total of eight sections. 4. In some parts of Australia, instead of employing the sharply defined divisions referred to, the marriages are arranged by the elders of the tribe, who are well acquainted with the genealogy of the people around them. This I have designated the Zooar organisation, and is elsewhere dealt with. ove ” ws ‘ . C MARRIAGE AND DESCENT AMONG AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES. 121 Owing to the different methods of subdividing the phratries, the details of the rules regulating the intermarriage of the men and women, and the descent of the progeny, are somewhat varied in each system, but the fundamental principles are the same in them all. Whether there are two, or four, or eight partitions of the community, every division has an independent name by which its members are easily recognised. Frequently, but not invariably, the men are distinguished from the women by means of a mascu- line and a feminine form of the name of each division. In dealing with the subject it will be necessary to supply tables giving examples of the divisions of a tribe in each type of organi- sation. Table No. 1 represents the Parn-kal’-la system, composed of the two phratries only; Table No. 2 shows the Kam7‘il-a-roi method of four divisions; and Table No.3 illustrates the Wom-by-a type, containing eight divisions. Table No. 1. Phratry. Father. Mother. Son. Daughter. A. Kirraroo Matturrin Matturri Matturrin B. Matturri Kirrarooan Kirraroo Kirrarooan Table No. 2. Phratry. Father. Mother. Son. Daughter. ie! Murri Butha' Ippai Ippatha Kubbi Ippath Kumbo Butha BI Kumbo Matha Kubbi Kubbitha Ippai Kubbitha Murri Matha Table No. 3. Phratry. Father. Mother. Son. Daughter. ‘Choolum Ningulum Palyarin Palyareenya Cheenum Nooralum Bungarin Bungareenya A. Jamerum Palyareenya Chooralum Nooralum Yacomary Bungareeny Chingulum Ningulum * In the Kamilaroi tribe each phratry is distinguished by a proper name—A is called Dilbee, and B is known as Kuppathin, but I have used the letters A and B so as to preserve uniformity in the three tables, for purposes of reference. 122 - &. H. MATHEWS. Table No. 3—continued. Phratry. Father. Mother. Son. Daughter. Chingulum Noolum Yacomary Yacomareenya Chooralum Neenum Jamerum Neomarum B. Bungarin Yacomareenya Cheenum Neenum Palyarin Neomarum Choolum Noolum A glance at the foregoing three tables shows that each system is exactly alike as regards the partition of the community into the phratries A and B. It will also be observed that each phratry is composed of certain aggregates of women, who have perpetual succession among themselves. We will take an example from the column headed “ mother” in phratry A in each table. In Table No. 1, Matturrin produces Matturrin from one generation to another. In Table No. 2, Butha produces Ippatha, and in the next generation Ippatha is the mother of Butha, and these sections reproduce each other in continuous alternation. In Table No. 3 we see that Ningulum has a daughter Palyareenya; Palyareenya produces Nooralum; Nooralum is the mother of Bungareenya; Bungareenya has a daughter Ningulum, and this series is con- tinually repeated in the same order. If the examples had been taken from phratry B, similar results would have been obtained. The brothers of the girls, in every case, belong to the same phratry and section as their sisters. We have therefore seen that the women never pass out of the phratry to which they belong, and that where it consists of more than one denomination, they pass successively through each of the © sections of which it is composed, in the same number of generations. It is also apparent that the daughters of each phratry become the | wives of the men born in the opposite one. For example, in Table No. 3, the women of phratry A are the mothers of sons and daughters belonging to the same phratry as themselves ; and their boys on reaching manhood must take their wives from phratry B. In a similar manner the daughters of the women of phratry A must obtain their husbands from among the sons of the women in phratry B. For the reasons above stated, I have found it con- MARRIAGE AND DESCENT AMONG AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES. 123 venient to enunciate that the phratries are formed and maintained by the women. Having illustrated the structure of the phratries, I will now pass on to very briefly show the rules of marriage among the subdivisions, and the descent of the resulting offspring. The three tables explain themselves—the father, mother, son and daughter of each division being shown on the same line across the page. In Table No. 1, where the phratry is undivided, the offspring take their mother’s denomination direct. In Table No. 2, in which the phratry is bisected, the progeny take the name of the comple- mentary division in the mother’s phratry, thus,—Butha’s children are Ippai and Ippatha, and Ippatha’s progeny are Kumbo and Butha. In some districts, instead of the marital laws following the order set out in the table, there are what I have termed “alternative” marriages, for example—a Murri, male, marries an Ippai, female, and vice versa; a Kubbi, male, takes a Kumbo, female, as his partner, and vice versa. The descent of the children, however, is not affected by this variation—the offspring of an Ippatha, for example, being always Kumbo and Butha, no matter whether she is united to a Kubbi or a Murri husband. Table No. 3 shows the Wom-by’-a organisation, in which the phratry is divided into four sections. By the ordinary or “direct” rules of marriage, Choolum takes Ningulum as his spouse, and the issue of the union are Palyarin and Palyareenya. But Choolum can exercise the alternative right of marrying a Nooralum woman? and in such case the offspring will be Bungarin and Bungareenya. Again, Cheenum takes Nooralum as his regular mate, and his “alternative” wife is Ningulum, the name of the resulting progeny being determined by the mother, as before. Similarly, Jamerum can marry either a Palyareenya ora Bungareenya woman, and Yacomary’s wife is Bungareenya, with the alternative of Palyar- eenya. In the pairs of sections, Chingulum and Chooralum, Bungarin and Palyarin, in phratry B, marriage and descent follow the same alternative rules, mutatis mutandis. In consequence of polygamy being sanctioned, it is possible for a man to take one 124 R. H. MATHEWS. wife from the “direct” section, and another spouse from the ‘‘alternative” division—the nomenclature of the progeny being regulated as above explained. It has been stated in an earlier page that the children belong to the same phratry as their mother, and in many tribes the totem is also handed down in the same way. In carefully examining tables of genealogies, however, it is quite clear that marriage, relationship and descent, depend mainly on the father’s side of the house—a law which applies with the same cogency to the Wombya, Kamilaroi and Parnkalla systems. The rule is equally persistent in the Tooar type of organisation, which I have described elsewhere. The people of both sexes marry an individual belonging to the same phratry as their father. Taking an example from Table No. 3, we see that Chingulum marries Noolum, of the same phratry as his father Yacomary. Noolum takes as her husband a Chin- gulum man, belonging to the phratry of her father Palyarin. By employing Table No. 2, for our example, it is observed that Ippai marries a Kubbitha woman belonging to the same phratry as his father Murri. And Kubbitha marries Ippai, a man of her father Kumbo’s phratry. All the people, men and women alike, marry an individual belonging to the same section of their father’s phratry as that to which his mother belongs. By taking our example from Table No. 3, we find that Choolum’s father is Palyarin, and Palyarin’s mother is Ningulum. Choolum marries a Ningulum woman, who therefore belongs to his father’s mother’s section. Again, Nin- gulum’s father is Yacomary, and Yacomary’s mother is Noolum. Noolum mates with Chingulum, the name of her father’s mother’s section. Using Table No. 2, for an example, it is seen that Murri’s father is Ippai, and the mother of Ippai is Butha; Murri marries Butha, his father’s mother’s section name. Also, Butha’s father is Kubbi, and Kubbi’s mother is Matha. Butha is married to Murri, the section name of her father’s mother. MARRIAGE AND DESCENT AMONG AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES. 125 The children of both sexes take the section name of their father’s father. By employing an example from Table No. 3, it is seen that Choolum has a son Palyarin, and Palyarin is the father of Choolum, the section of his father’s father. Again, Choolum has a son Palyarin, and Palyarin has a daughter Noolum, the name of the section to which her father’s father, Choolum, belongs, Taking an example from Table No. 2, we observe that Murri’s son is Ippai, and Ippai has a son Murri, the section name of his father’s father. Also, Kumbo has a son Kubbi, and Kubbi has a daughter Butha, the section to which her father’s father belongs. In the Kamilaroi and Parnkalla systems, the children, in addition, take the section name of their mother’s mother, (which in their case is identical with that of their father’s father); but this does not apply to the Wombya, owing to their more perfect system of subdividing the phratries. In the three last preceding paragraphs, examples have not been supplied from Table No. 1, illustrating the Parnkalla system of marriage and descent, it being thought that the simplicity of the table renders explanation unnecessary. A man takes a wife who is the daughter either of his father’s cousin, or of his mother’s cousin ; and a woman likewise marries a man who is the son of a cousin of her father or of her mother. The cousin here meant is the child of one’s father’s sister, or of one’s mother’s brother. This statement can be illustrated by using a diagram, with distinctive letters, which can be referred to, as follows :— Diagram No. 1. Brother and Sister. C D B | Cousins. E re Husband and Wife. ao I will commence with examples from the Wombya organisation, represented in Table No.3. The pedigree of a man’s wife, traced 126 R. H. MATHEWS. through his father, is as follows :—A=Choolum; B= A’s father, Palyarin; C= B’s father, Choolum ; D=C’s sister, Noolum; E= D’s son, Yacomary; F=E’s daughter, Ningulum. By the table we see that A =Choolum, marries F = Ningulum, the daughter of his father’s father’s sister’s son—that is to say, the daughter of his father’s cousin. By following the pedigree of any given man’s wife through his mother, it can be shewn that Chingulum, for example, marries Noolum, the daughter of his mother’s mother’s brother’s daughter, or in other words, the daughter of his mother’s cousin. The pedigree of a woman’s husband, if traced through her father, can be run out as follows:—A=Ningulum; B=A’s father, Yacomary; C=B8’s father, Chingulum ; D=C’s sister, Ningulum; E= D’s son, Palyarin; F = E’s son, Choolum ; then A = Ningulum marries F = Choolum, who is the son of her father’s father’s sister’s son—that is, the son of her father’s cousin. In a similar way it can be represented, by running out a woman’s husband’s pedigree through her own mother, that she herself marries the son of her mother’s mother’s brother’s daughter, or in other words, the son of her mother’s cousin. The same rules hold good in the Kamilaroi organisation, as the following example from Table No. 2 will explain :—A=Kumbo; B=A’s father, Kubbi; C=B’s father, Kumbo; D=C’s sister, Butha; E=D?’s son, Ippai; F=E’s daughter, Matha. Then A= Kumbo marries F= Matha, the daughter of his father’s father’s sister’s son—that is, the daughter of his father’s cousin. An example from Table No. | will illustrate that the same laws also apply to the Parnkalla organisation :—A= Kirraroo; B=A’s father, Matturri; C=B’s father, Kirraroo ; D=C’s sister, Kirra- . rooan; E=D?’s son, Kirraroo; F=E’s- daughter, Matturrin. Then, A=Kirraroo marries F = Matturrin, the daughter of his father’s father’s sister’s son, or, the daughter of his father’s cousin. One example each in the Kamilaroi and Parnkalla systems has been thought sufficient, because the rules are analogous to those MARRIAGE AND DESCENT AMONG AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES, 127 given in the Wombya organisation, which has been illustrated more fully, in order to avoid repetition. In the Kamilaroi and Parnkalla systems, according to the tables, the men, as well as the women, can marry the offspring of their father’s sister, or of their mother’s brother, subject to conditions to be mentioned presently. This also applies to the “alternative” marriages of the Wombya. By using a diagram this can be made more clear :— Diagram No. 2. Brother and Sister. . Cousins. Aaa D Taking an example from the Kamilaroi system it can be demon- strated that A=Kubbi; B=A’s father Kumbo; C=B’s sister Butha; D=C’s daughter Ippatha. Kubbi marries Ippatha, the daughter of his father’s sister. If we had traced the blood through Kubbi’s mother Matha, it could have been shown that he married his mother’s brother’s daughter. Again, if A be a female, the genealogy of her husband can be followed, in the same way, through her father’s sister, or her mother’s brother, showing that she marries a son of one of these. If we further consider Kubbi= 4A, and assume that his father, Kumbo = B, is an emu, then B’s sister Cis also an emu.’ Referring to diagram No. 2, it is apparent that A is the son of an Emu man, B; and that D, his wife, is the daughter of an Emu woman, C. Putting the above example in another form, it will be seen that the son of a brother marries the daughter of a sister ; and not only so, but the son of an emu marries the daughter of anemu. To prevent the union of persons of such consanguinity there are customary laws in aboriginal society which make it incumbent that the brother and sister relationship here referred to shall be collateral or tribal only, and not of the full blood. It may not * Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc., Q., Vol. x., p. 22. ” @rey na | sy r « 128 R. H. MATHEWS. be unnecessary to state here that by following the ordinary rules of marriage in the Wombya organisation, as represented in Table No. 3, a brother’s children’s children intermarry with a sister’s children’s children—a relationship sufficiently wide not to require any further restrictions. Selecting an illustration from the Wombya system we can show by Diagram No. 2 that A=Choolum; B= A’s father Palyarin 5 C=B’s sister Palyareenya; D=C’s daughter Nooralum. Then Choolum, as his “alternative” wife, marries Nooralum, the daughter of his father’s sister. It can easily be shown that Choolum’s alternative spouse may also be the daughter of his mother’s brother. And if A bea female, the genealogy can be varied as in the Kamilaroi example last given. It also appears that if A’s father Palyarin, B, is an eaglehawk, then B’s sister, Polyareenya, is like- wise an eaglehawk. According to the diagram, A is the son of an eaglehawk man, B; and A’s wife, D, is the daughter of an eaglehawk woman, C. Asin the Kamilaroi example, this brother and sister relationship must be titular instead of direct. It is not thought necessary to furnish an example of the marriage rules, according to diagram 2, in the Parnkalla system, pecan they are similar to those of the Kamilaroi. In examining each pair of sections in Table No. 3, itis observed that Choolum is Cheenum’s father’s (Bungarin’s) female cousin’s (Neomarum’s) son, and also that Cheenum possesses the same relationship to Choolum. Again, Choolum marries Cheenum’s cousin, and Cheenum marries Choolum’s cousin. It is likewise apparent that Jamerum is Yacomary’s father’s (Chingulum’s) female cousin’s (Neenum’s) son; and that Yacomary is related in the same manner to Jamerum. Also, Jamerum marries Yacomary’s cousin, and Yacomary maries Jamerum’s cousin. Similarly it can be shown that the pairs of sections, Chingulum and Chooralum, and also Bungarin and Palyarin, are respectively related to each other in the same way. ‘The relationships referred to in this para- graph account for certain pairs of sections, (e.g., Choolum and Cheenum), being placed together in the table. MARRIAGE AND DESCENT AMONG AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES. 129 As indicated in Table No. 3, Choolum and Palyarin are related to each other as father and son in continuous alternation, and I have found that they have certain totems which descend with them. Thus, Choolum bandicoot is the father of Palyarin bandicoot, and in the next generation Palyarin bandicoot is the father of Choolum bandicoot. The other pairs of sections have aggregates of totems in the same manner, as enumerated in Table No. 4, hereunder :— Table No. 4. ; (Choolum Black-snake, death-adder, bandicoot, eagle-hawk, i Palyarin bloodwood, currant bush, tiger-snake. ~~ eo ° ‘6 |Cheenum Fire, opossum, black-duck, emu, rain, corella, = | Bungarin scorpion, thunder. os Jamerum (Iguana, kangaroo, spinnifex, dingo, lightning, >, |Chooralum | crow, carpet-snake, pipe-clay. » oO ‘5 |Yacomary ;Common hawk, yam, frog, white crane, mopoke, = \Chingulum ¢ galah. In treating of the “alternative” marriages in an earlier page it was shown that Cheenum could also marry Ningulum, in which case his son would be Palyarin ; and ina similar manner Choolum could be the father of Bungarin. With totems descending from the father to his offspring, in tribes where polygamy is practised, Cheenum’s totem could be transmitted to both Bungarin and Palyarin, supposing he takes a wife from each of the sections over which he possesses potential marital rights. I have discovered that, in consequence of the close blood-relationship referred to in the last few paragraphs, the divisions Choolum, Palyarin, Cheenum and Bungarin, are very friendly amongst themselves, and the same totems are more or less in use among these four sections, whom I have accordingly called Moiety A. In other words, the totems particularized in Table No. 4 as belonging primarily to Choolum and Palyarin, are also to some extent common to Cheenum and Bungarin, and wice versa. The same remarks will apply in all respects to the remaining four sections, who are distinguished as Moiety B, in Table No. 4. The men and women of Moiety A I—Oct. 3, 1900. 130 R. H. MATHEWS. are related as brothers-in-law and sisters-in-law respectively to the people of Moiety B, and conversely. In general], the progeny, boys and girls alike, take the totem of their male parent. Marriage between persons of the same totem is forbidden, if they belong to families residing in neighbouring hunting grounds, but where the parties to the union come from remote districts, and therefore cannot be any blood connection, I have observed individuals of the same totem living as man and wife. Mr. T. M. Sutton, in speaking of the Adjadurah tribe in 1887, refers to a man who wasa ghardie (emu), being married to a ghardie woman. The following are a few of the principal tribes inhabiting the country about Elsey Creek, Katherine. and Roper Rivers, reach- ing northerly to Wilton and Goyder Rivers, and onward to Glyde’s Inlet on the north coast of Arnheim’s Jand, Northern Territory. Their names are the Yungmunnee, Charmong, Mungerry, Yookull, Hongalla, and Koorungo. ‘They have an organisation containing eight sections, similar to those given in Table No. 3, but bearing a nomenclature more or less different. These eight sections, how they intermarry, and the names of the resulting offspring is repre- sented in tabular form hereunder :— Table No 5. Phratry. Father. Mother. Son. Daughter. Eemitch Inkagalla Uwallaree Imballaree Uwannee Imbawalla Uwungaree Imbongaree A Unmarra Imballaree Urwalla Imbawalla ‘Tabachin Imbongaree Yungalla Inkagalla Yungalla Immadenna Tabachin Tabadenna Urwalla Imbannee Unmarra Inganmarra B Uwungaree Tabadenna Unwannee Imbannee |\Uwallaree Inganmarra Eemitch Immadenna These are the divisions of the Yungmunnee tribe about Elsey Creek, and their equivalence to those of the Wombya is as follows: Eemitch is equal to Choolum, Uwannee to Cheenum, Unmarra to 1 Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc., S.A., Vol. 11., 3rd Session, p. 17. MARRIAGE AND DESCENT AMONG AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES, 131 Jamerumw, and Tabachin to Yacomary in phratry A. Again, Yungalla corresponds to Chingulum, Urwalla to Chooralum, Uwungaree to Bungarin, and U wallaree to Palyarin, in Phratry B. All that has been said in the foregoing pages in regard to the Wombya tribe, represented in Tables Nos. 3 and 4, applies equally in every respect to the sections and phratries illustrated in Table No.5; A brief reference to the geographic distribution of the tribes adopting each type of organisation dealt with in this article may not be without interest. The country inhabited by the people of the Wombya type of division comprises about three-fourths of the Northern Territory of South Australia, with extensive regions in Queensland and Western Australia. The territory occupied by tribes possessing the Kamilaroi system extends over about two- thirds of New South Wales, the greater part of Queensland, a wide zone through the centre of South Australia, and more than half of Western Australia. The Parnkalla organisation includes nearly the whole of Victoria, about a third of New South Wales, part of Queensland, and a considerable portion of Western Aus- tralia and South Australia. Among the tribes on the south-east coast of New South Wales and Victoria, the southern coast of South Australia, part of the west coast of Western Australia, and a tract of country reaching inland easterly and southerly from Port Darwin, in the Northern Territory, the Zooar type of organisation is in force, with various modifications. APPENDIX. Some Tribes or Cape YorK PENINSULA, QUEENSLAND. That portion of Cape York Peninsula extending from the Cape to about the fifteenth parallel of south latitude, is occupied by a considerable number of tribes, out of which may be enumerated the Yandigan, Merrikaba, Kowanatty, Gametty, Joonkoonjee, Tannazootee, Yeldivo, Kokinno, Kamdheu and Kookeealla. Of these I am best acquainted with the Joonkoonjee tribe, on the 132 R. H. MATHEWS. Batavia River, whose organisation is after the Kamilaroi type, possessing four sections, with rules of marriage and descent as in the following table—the males and females using the same names for their respective divisions. The dialects spoken from the Jardine to the Batavia River and Pioneer Downs, or farther south, are similar in many respects. My best thanks are due to the Rev. N. Hey, of Mapoon, and other gentlemen on the Peninsula, for assisting me whilst engaged in obtaining the following inform- ation. Table No. 6. Phratry. Father. Mother. Offspring. Lankenamee Pakwickee Pamarung Jamakunda : Namegooree Pamarung Pakwickee S ( Pakwickee Lankenamee Namegooree Kamanutta ( Pamarung Namegooree Lankenamee The pair of sections forming the phratry Jamakunda invariably marry the Kamanutta pair, but the rules of intermarriage of the individual sections constituting the phratries vary in different parts of the tribal territory. For example, in some districts instead of the rules of marriage following the order laid down in Table No. 6, a Lankenamee, male, provided there is no blood relationship, may marry a Pamarung, female, and vice versa. The descent of the offspring 1s not disturbed by this irregularity—the children of a Pakwickee mother being always Pamarung, irrespectively of the section name of her husband. These rules apply, mutatis mutandis, to all the other sections. Athough marriages are generally regulated by the order of names in Table No. 6, and the rules given in the last paragraph, there are, further, what I have designated ‘family, or sectional” regulations, under which a man may, in certain cases only, take a wife bearing his own section name, but of a different totemic nomenclature. For example, a Lankenamee shark, belonging to a distant lineage, might be permitted to take as his wife a Lan- kenamee grasshopper. MARRIAGE AND DESCENT AMONG AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES. Lao The sons and daughters of certain women are betrothed in infancy to the daughters and sons of other women—these betrothals being of course in accordance with the laws illustrated in Table No. 6. For the purpose of providing against contingencies, two or three girls are usually betrothed to the same boy ; or more boys than one may be allotted to the same girl. d/eeoogoo is a mutual term of relationship between the mother of the girl and the mother of the boy. The totems, called by the natives eedeete, belonging to each phatry are common to the two sections of which it is composed ; thus, the totems attached to Jamakunda are common to the sections Lankenamee and Namegooree; and the Kamanutta totems are common to the Packwickee and Pamarang sections. The following are some of the totems attached to the phratry Jamakunda :—black snake, shark, emu, native dog, bush rat, rock, stone, ironbark tree, wattle tree, north wind, black cloud, yams, native cat, kangaroo-grass, carpet snake, kangaroo, crow, common hawk, dove, white fish, silver fish, bronze pigeon, sea, fresh water, a dead man, grasshopper, green ants, bloodwood tree, fire, and wind. Among the totems of the Kamanutta phratry may be enumerated the tea-tree, sun, moon, iguana, plain turkey, opossum, pelican, common grass, bee, fly, frog, black duck, lizard, bark of a tree, gum, thunder, water-lily, sea-shell, turtle, butterfly, ibis, crab and beetle. The children take the phratry and totem name of the mother; they do not, however, belong to her section, but take the name of the other section in their mother’s phratry, as exemplified in Table No. 6. When the boys are about twelve years of age, they are taken from the control of their mothers by the chief men, and are passed through a course of initiatory formalities, analogous in their main features to those practised by the Kamilaroi,' Dippil,” and Koom- * Proc. Roy. Soc., Victoria, Vol. rx., N.S., pp. 187 —- 178. ? American Anthropoligist, Vol. 11., N.S., pp. 189 —144. 134 R. H. MATHEWS. bangeary' tribes, described by me elsewhere. Scars are raised upon their bodies, the septum of the nose is pierced, and a front tooth is punched out of each youth, during the ceremonies. The novices are required to pass through the ordeal of inauguration at not less than three meetings of the tribes for that purpose, extend- ing perhaps ever a period of several years, and at the conclusion of the proceedings they are presented with spears and other weapons and released from certain prohibitions regarding food-——for example they may now eat eggs, iguana, Wc., which were before forbidden to them. A ‘bullroarer,”’ called by the natives pzpe-ra-chy, is used by the tribes on these occasions; it is generally made of bloodwood, of the usual shape, with a hole drilled in the smaller end, through which a long string is fastened, to enable the operator to swing it round his head. The size of the instrument varies from about sixteen to twenty inches, and is often ornamented with one longi- tudinal and several transverse bars painted in red ochre on one or both sides. Until a youth has graduated in all the inaugural ceremonies of his tribe, and been admitted to the rights and privileges of aboriginal manhood, he cannot take a wife, or be present at any of the councils or deliberations of the men. Message sticks? are used in summoning tribes for festive or hostile corroborees, and as friendly reminders to relatives at a distance. ‘They consist of small pieces of wood, four or five inches in length, with quadrilateral designs and other rude markings cut upon their surface. Sometimes a bunch of feathers, bound into a cylindrical form by means of string, and about ten inches long, is used for the same purpose. * Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., Philad., Vol. xxxvit., pp. 53 — 66. *See my article on the different kinds of ‘“ Bullroarers’’—Journ. Anthop. Inst., Lond., xxvur., 52 - 60. 3 The reader is referred to my paper on ‘‘ Message Sticks’”—American Anthropologist, X., 288 — 297. Co OU MARRIAGE AND DESCENT AMONG AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES. i Infanticide, abortion, and cannibalism are largely practised among all the tribes on the Peninsula in those districts where the natives are still in a comparatively wild state. The bones of adult victims, rolled in strips of the bark of the tea-tree, and fastened with string passed around, are frequently carried by the relatives of the deceased for considerable periods. The same divisional system, but with different names for the sections, extends from Cape York southerly till it adjoins the Koonjan and other tribes, who use the four divisions reported by me in Table No. 3, contained in a paper’ contributed to this Society in 1899. Koonjan, Warkeemon, Goothanto, Mykoolon and Kogai com- The equivalence of the four sections of the munities may be tabulated as follows :— Table No. 7. Koonjan | Warkeemon) Goothanto | Mykoolon Kogai. Community. | Community. | Community. | Community. | Community. 1. Ajeereena | Karpungie| Erainyer | Jimalingo | Woongo 2. Arenynung|Cheekungie, Arara Bathingo | Koobaroo 3. Perrynung | Kellungie | Loora Maringo ~~ Bunburri 4. Mahngale | Koopungie|) Awonger | Yowingo | Koorgilla + Joura. Roy. Soc., N.S.W., XxxXI1I., pp. 108 - 111. Ve oy a*r 136 H. G. SMITH. On THE CONSTITUENT or PEPPERMINT ODOUR occur- RING IN MANY EUCALYPTUS OILS.—Parr I. By Henry G. Smirga, F.c.s., Assistant Curator, Technological Museum, Sydney. [Received and read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, October 3, 1900. ] _ AmoneG the Eucalypts of Australia there are many species known vernacularly as Peppermints, on account of the marked peppermint odour given by the leaves when crushed, or from the odour of the oil when distilled. | The first Eucalyptus oil was obtained from a New South Wales’ species known as the Sydney Peppermint, Lucalyptus piperita,Sm., which species grows plentifully in the neighbourhood of Sydney. The following quotation is from page 227 of ‘‘ White’s Voyage to New South Wales,” published 1790 :—‘‘ The name of Peppermint Tree has been given to this plant by Mr. White on account of the very great resemblance between the essential oil drawn from its leaves and that obtained from the peppermint, Mentha piperita, which grows in England. This oil was found by Mr. White to be much more eflicaceous in removing all cholicky complaints than that of the English peppermint, which he attributes to its being less pungent and more aromatic. A, quart of the oil has been sent by him to Mr. Wilson.” Although the leaves of this species have a well marked pepper- mint odour, yet, the constituent giving this odour is only present in very small quantity in the oil; this is also the case with many other species, the type HZ. amygdalina, for instance, which is also known in some localities as peppermint. From our experiments — we find that this peppermint constituent occurs in greatest amount in the oil obtained from the leaves of LZ. dives, next in that of £. radiata, and in somewhat lesser amount from the leaves of CONSTITUENT OF PEPPERMINT ODOUR IN EUCALYPTUS OILS. 137 £. Sieberiana, and from £. coriacee and several others. If sub- sequent investigation should show this constituent to have special value for medicinal or other purposes, it can be obtained com- mercially from the leaves of both £. dives and #. radiata, so that the supply can be assured. In the oils of those species mentioned, this peppermint constituent occurs with phellandrene as the principal terpene, and in many of them with an almost entire absence of eucalyptol. Although occurring principally with phellandrene, yet, this terpene need not necessarily be present, as the peppermint constituent has been found occurring in the oil of at least one species in which phellandrene is quite absent ; but generally, it may be stated as occurring in the oils of those species which are pronounced phellandrene bearing ones, and which make such a well defined group of Eucalyptus trees. The yield of oil obtained, on a commercial scale, from the leaves and terminal branchlets of #. dives ranges from two to three per cent.; the oil is usually almost colourless, owing to the small quantity of free acid present. The crude oil has a low specific gravity 0882 to 0'888 at 15° C., only a trace of Eucalyptol appears to be present at any time, but there is always much phellandrene. The optical rotation of the crude oil in a 100 mm. tube ranges from —55-7° to — 63-9° the higher rotation occurring during the Australian spring months, the lower during the winter months. On rectifying a sample of the oil of Z. dives distilled in October, only two per cent. distilled below 172° C.; between 172° and 200° C.' 60 per cent. was obtained; between 200° and 227° C. 13 per cent. came over, and between 227° C. and 240° C. 20 per cent. distilled. The peppermint constituent occurs in greatest amount in the fraction 227° to 240° C., and it was thus possible to obtain it in a crude condition by ordinary distillation. The specific gravity at 15° C. of the fraction 172° - 200° C. was 0°8593, of that obtained between 200° and 227° C. 0:8936, and of that between 227° and 240° C. 0-9318. 1 These temperatures are corrected to the nearest whole degree. 7" The optical rotation of the first fraction in a 100 mm. tube was —73°85°, while that of the third fraction had been reduced to —9°4°. A larger quantity of the oil (two litres) was then distilled 138 H. G. SMITH. when practically the same results and percentages were obtained. The constituents in the fraction 227° — 240° C. suffered slight decomposition when distilled under atmospheric pressure, as indicated by the odour and the darkening on keeping. When the oil was distilled under reduced pressure no decomposition took place. The oil when thus obtained under reduced pressure is of a slight yellowish colour, having a strong taste and odour of peppermint, and for commercial purposes might be used as thus obtained, or, the same result may be brought about by steam distillation of the fraction 227° - 240°C. When placed upon the tongue it has a hot and penetrating effect, quickly diffusing a sense of warmth over the chest. When taken in small quantities it appears to act efficaciously in the early stages of a cold. Whether it has value in this or other directions is worthy of determination by the medical profession. The peppermint constituent when obtained as pure as possible, possesses an odour of peppermint which is much more pronounced when diffused, but the peppermint taste is increased exceedingly, and it is also much more pungent than the oil of the fraction from which it was obtained. It is most probably, owing to the strong odour given by this constituent when diffused, that has caused the name ‘‘peppermint” to be attached to so many different species of Eucalyptus. The oil of many of these species, however, does not contain the constituent in sufficient quantities to enable it to be isolated, or even readily detected ; and it is probable that many of theconstituents found in larger amount insome Eucalyptus oils are also present in minute quantities in a great many others, their characteristic odour being more readily detected in the leaf than in the oil after extraction. The only chemical references to this peppermint constituent, that I can find are in Messrs. Schimmel & Co’s. semi-annual reports for April 1888, and April 1890, where referring to the CONSTITUENT OF PEPPERMINT ODOUR IN EUCALYPTUS OILS. 139 oil of #. hemastoma, they say, that probably this contains menthone. There appears to be but one constituent in Eucalyptus oils having this peppermint odour. We have distilled the oil from the leaves of #. hemastoma from two localities and failed to detect this peppermint constituent in the oil. This species grows plenti- fully in New South Wales, and is known as ‘‘ White or Scribbly Gum.” Mr. Smith, the author of this species, named £. heemastoma in 1797, no doubt from trees growing at Sydney, in the neighbour- hood of which it occurs plentifully, and as the characteristic con- stituents of identical species of Eucalyptus appear to be constant, there can be no doubt that the oil referred to’ by Schimmel & Co. was not obtained from #. hemastoma, but from another species. The question of constancy of chemical constituents in oils of the same species of EKucalypts will be fully discussed in the forthcom- ing work by Mr. R. T. Baker and myself. Now that this peppermint constituent has been isolated it is found not to be menthone, as it has a much higher specific gravity, a higher boiling point, has probably no rotation, and the crystalline product obtained on reduction by sodium in alcoholic solution is not menthol, but quite a distinct substance and most probably new. Its taste and odour also differ from menthone. In boiling point and specific gravity it more closely resembles pulegone, but the same differences present themselves as with menthone. We are indebted to Messrs. Schimmel & Co. of Leipzig for samples of both menthone and pulegone, that firm having presented to the Technological Museum a very fine collection of the several con- stituents occurring in essential oils. It is probable that the peppermint constituent found in Eucalyptus oils is a new ketone, and in the second part of this paper I purpose dealing more fully _with its chemical reactions and peculiarities. EXPERIMENTAL. Purification of the constituent. The fraction 227° — 240° C. was frequently agitated for about three weeks with a saturated solution of sodium bisulphite, adding 140 H. G. SMITH. a little alcohol. The combination did not readily take place. After some days a crystalline compound formed which continued to increase. On adding water the crystals dissolved, the unacted upon oil separating. The aqueous portion was removed and decomposed with caustic soda solution. An oil at once separated in good quantity showing that a compound had been formed. The separated oil was well washed and then steam distilled. As thus obtained it is almost colourless, and has an intense peppermint taste and peppermint odour; it is soluble in alcohol, ether, and ordinary solvents, and is slightly soluble in water. Optical rotation. The rotation in a 100 mm, tube was —0°35°, It is probable that the constituent itself is inactive, and that the slight rotation was caused by the presence of a minute quantity of the aromatic aldehyde present in these oils, previously supposed to be cumin- aldehyde ; this itself is levorotatory and would be extracted with sodium bisulphite together with the peppermint constituent, and be present in the final product. That a small quantity of an aldehyde is present is indicated by the slight pink colour obtained when tested by Schiff’s reaction, but the quantity present can be but small as this aldehyde answers to Schiff’s reaction readily, besides easily forming a crystalline oxime. It has not been possible so far to form a crystalline oxime with the peppermint _ constituent, it remaining persistently as a thick oil; when dissolved in alcohol it had no rotation. The presence of a small quantity of this aldehyde in the oil of E. dives again illustrates the persistency with which minute g p y. quantities of the several constituents maintain their presence in these oils. Specific gravity. The specific gravity of the purified material was °9393 at +4. ¢ Boiling point. The purified material boils at 224 — 225° C. CONSTITUENT OF PEPPERMINT ODOUR IN EUCALYPTUS oILs. 141] Molecular value. 1/1816 gramme in 27°3 grammes of glacial acetic acid gave a depression in the freezing point of 1-085 degrees; the molecular value from this is 155. C,,H,,0 = 154. The crystalline substance formed on reduction. On treating a solution in alcohol with metallic sodium, and afterwards adding water, the thick oily substance which separated was seen, after some time, to contain crystals. The aqueous portion was removed and the oily mass treated with slightly diluted alcohol in the cold. The crystals were but slightly acted upon and it was thus possible to remove the adhering oily impurities by dilute alcohol alone. That the crystals can be thus purified, was seen by the fact that as thus obtained, they melted at the correct temperature. The crystals are but slightly soluble in ether, so that they can be thus purified also. The crystals were found to be exceedingly soluble in chloroform from which on evaporation oblique needle crystals were obtained. The best method of purification was found to be to remove all adhering impurities by alcohol and ether, drying, and afterwards dissolving in chloroform, filtering, and allowing to crystallise. The crystais were colourless, they were slightly soluble in acetic ether, insoluble in acetone, and insoluble in alkalis. The melting point was 155 -156° C.; the substance did not decompose on melting, and on cooling crystallised very finely in long prisms of radiating crystals, which polarised exceedingly well. Its slight solubility in both alcohol and ether may be characteristic. Determination of the alcohol in fraction 227 — 240° C. An attempt to isolate an alcohol from this fraction with phthalic anhydride was not successful, no alcoholic substance being obtained. A portion of the oil of this fraction was then boiled for three hours with acetic anhydride and anhydrous sodium acetate, treat- ing in the usual way and saponifying the product, 1:3236 grammes of the oil thus obtained was heated halfan-hour with 10 ce. 142 H. G. SMITH. alcoholic potash of known value, and titrated with semi-normal sulphuric acid, the saponification figure was 42°3 from which, taking the molecular weight of the ester as 196, we obtain 14:8 per cent. of ester or 12-0 per cent. of alcohol originally existing in this fraction, considering the molecular formula to be C,,H,,0. Only a very small quantity of ester is present originally in the crude oil of H. dives, so that an aromatic alcohol is shown to be present in small amount in this oil. I wish to express my thanks to my colleague Mr. R. T. Baker, F.u.s., for botanical assistance in the preparation of this paper. On an EUCALYPTUS OIL contrarnine 60 Per Cent. oF GERANYL ACETATE. By Henry G. Smiru, F.c.s., Assistant Curator, Technological Museum, Sydney. [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, November 7, 1900. | In a paper by Mr. R. T. Baker and myself, “On the Darwinias of Port Jackson and their essential oils,” read before this Society, December 6th, 1899, we showed that geraniol occurs in large quantities in the oil distilled from the leaves of Darwinia fascr- cularis, this alcohol can, therefore, be obtained in commercial quantities from plants belonging to the Myrtacece. The indigenous flora of Australia is exceedingly rich in plants belonging to this natural order, and it is thus probable that we shall eventually find other plants belonging to the Myrtaceae, besides Darwinia fascicularis and the present Eucalyptus, from which geraniol may be obtainable on a commercial scale. During the research on the Eucalypts of New South Wales and their essential oils, now being undertaken at this Museum, the EUCALYPTUS OIL CONTAINING GERANYL ACETATE. 143 presence of aromatic alcohols has often been detected ; either free or combined as esters, and in a paper before this Society’ it was shown that in the oil of #. patentinervis, either geraniol or linalol was present as free alcohol; from the results of this research it was probably geraniol. The species of Eucalyptus now being described, the oil of which contains such a large percentage of geraniol, is known locally as ‘Paddy’s River Box’; its botanical name is Hucalyptus macarthurt. It grows plentifully in the Wingello district of this colony, on the banks of Paddy’s River it is found as a fine foliaceous tree. The oil obtained from this species has no resemblance to ordinary Eucalyptus oi], and belongs to none of the well defined chemical groups of these oils. It thus becomes still more dificult to define in a simple sentence what Eucalyptus oil really is. The crude oil of #. macarthuri, obtained by steam distillation from fresh material of leaves and terminal branchlets, is reddish in colour owing to the presence of a smal] amount of free acid in the original oil. In appearance, odour, etc., it resembles more than anything else, the crude oil of Darwinia fascicularis, but the higher boiling portion consists largely of eudesmol, the stear- optene of Eucalyptus oil, which constituent is absent in Darwinia. Although containing this stearoptene no crystals were obtained when the crude oil was placed in a freezing mixture, eudesmol being so exceedingly soluble in the oil. The free acid present could not be determined in the usual way because it was found during the research on the oil of Darwinia fascicularis, that saponification of geranyl acetate takes place readily in the cold, if alcoholic potash be used. Full description of the rates of saponification is given in the paper referred to. The free acid was readily removed from the oil of #. macarthuri, by agitating with a very dilute aqueous solution of potash, the ester not being saponified by this treatment; the oil was after- wards well washed and dried. Saponification of the oil before * Proc. Roy Soc., N. S. Wales, 1900, p. 74. 144 H. G. SMITH. and after this treatment gives the amount of free acid present. The crude oil, after removal of the free acid, was but slightly coloured, it had a slight rotation to the right, and formed a clear solution with two volumes of 70 per cent. alcohol. The oil was distilled in October 1900, and the yield obtained at that time of the year from leaves and branchlets was 0-112 per cent., 500 tbs. of material giving nine ounces of oil. The leaves were obtained from the neighbourhood of Wingello. The yield is only one-third that obtainable from the leaves and terminal branchlets of Darwinia fascicularis, and may be considered as about equal in amount to that obtained for geranium oil (Pelar- gonium sp.). It would, however, be necessary to cultivate Dar- winia for its oil, but the leaves of HL. macarthuri are ready to hand. The mode of collection and distillation need not differ in any respect from that followed with ordinary Eucalyptus oil, except that it seems wasteful in the extreme to cut down the trees simply for their leaves, when by topping the trees, fresh material might again be obtained from the same trees in a few years. As the actual cost of obtaining crude Eucalyptus oil per pound from various species is well known, the cost of manufacturing any crude Eucalyptus oil can be calculated, providing the percentage yield (on a commercial scale) of any species is known. The method of preparing the oil of #. macarthuri for market is purely a com- mercial matter, but the saponification of the total ester in the oil takes place in the cold when alcoholic potash is used, the delicacy of the geraniol is thus not impaired in the slightest, as it is unnecessary to use heat, and the stearoptene, (eudesmol), having scarcely any odour does not interfere. The separated oil after cold saponification is light yellowish in colour, its odour is fresh and aromatic, and when diffused the rose odour is very marked. The acetic acid present in the ester might also be recovered if desired. It is probable that slight differences may be found in the com- position of the oil at different times of the year, but judging from the results obtained for Darwinia these differences should not be EUCALYPTUS OIL CONTAINING GERANYL ACETATE. 145 great. Some free alcohol was found to be present in the oil of E. macarthuri, most probably geraniol. The oil separated after saponification is readily oxidised to citral, using potassium bichromate. The pure aldehyde was obtained by agitating the oxidised product with sodium bisulphite, separating the crystals formed, purifying and decomposing them in the usual way. The tests applied, together with the odour, showed the product to be citral. Pure geraniol was obtained by treating the saponified oil with dry calcium chloride, removing the unacted upon oil with benzene, allowing the benzene to evaporate, and decomposing the compound: with water; the washed oil was then steam distilled. The product. was a colourless oil of a fine rose odour, it boiled at 224 — 225° C.. (uncor.), and had a specific gravity 0:885 at 20° C. On distilling the oil under atmospheric pressure only a few drops: came over below 172° C.,! between 172 and 219° C. 10 per cent. distilled ; between 219 and 229° C., 63 per cent. was obtained ;. the thermometer then rapidly rose to 266° C., between 266 and 282° C., 16 per cent. came over. Some decomposition of the ester: had taken place under atmospheric pressure, the odour of acetic- acid being detected. The first fraction contained neither eucalyptol nor phellandrene, but a green coloration being obtained with the sodium nitrite, indicated that a small quantity of pinene was. present. The second fraction contained most of the geraniol. The third fraction consisted largely of eudesmol, the oil crystallising © toa solid mass in the bottle soon after distilling. The optical rotation of the crude oil after removal of the free- acid was + 3°6° ina 100 mm. tube, and the fraction 219 — 229°C. had a rotation in the same tube of +1:0°. The specific gravity of the crude oil at 15° C. was 0°9245, this comparatively high specific gravity was due to the presence of the stearoptene. The- specific gravity of the fraction 172 - 219° C. was 0°8823; of the- fraction 219 — 229° C. 0:9111; while that of the fraction 266 — * Temperatures corrected to the nearest whole degree. J—Nov. 7, 1900. 146 H. G. SMITH. : 282° C. was 0°9511. The high specific gravity of this portion of the oil raises the specific gravity of the crude oil above that of Darwinia fascicularis. The specific gravity of the oil after saponifying was 0°9115 at 15° C. Determination of the ester. The amount of ester present was determined by heating the oil on the water-bath for one half hour (using upright condenser) with 20 ce. of semi-normal alcoholic potash, and then titrating with semi-normal sulphuric acid in the usual way. (1) 2:9725 grammes oil required -5124 gramme potash; saponi- fication figure =172°38. (2) 3:0125 orammes oil required -5194 gramme potash; saponi- fication figure =172°4. | As the ester consists entirely of geranyl acetate with a molecular weight of 196, the amount of ester present in the crude oil is 60°34 per cent. After removing the free acid in the oil an ester determination gave the following result :— 1:945 grammes oil required 3332 gramme potash; saponification houne:— lilies, this gives the saponification figure for the free acid as 1-1, so that the amount of ester as geranyl acetate in the oil was 59:95 per cent. and the free acid represented an ester value of 0:39 per cent. Determination of ester by cold saponification. The oil taken was that from which the free acid had been removed by aqueous potash, one anda half hours elapsed after addition of the alcoholic potash before titration. 1:65 grammes oil required ‘2828 gramme potash; saponification figure =171°4 ; this is equal to 59:99 per cent. and it shows that the whole of the ester present in the oil is saponified in the cold in one and half hours. It appears thus certain that the ester present in this oil is wholly geranyl acetate and that the other esters present in EUCALYPTUS OIL CONTAINING GERANYL ACETATE. )A7 Eucalyptus oils, determined during the research, are absent, viz., the amyl ester of eudesmic acid present in largest amount in the oil of #. aggregata,; the iso-valeric acid ester present in greatest amount in the oil of &. salagna, and the acetic acid ester present in the oil of an Eucalyptus sp. at present undetermined. It ig thus probable that this method might be used quantitatively for the determination of geranyl acetate occurring in other essential oils together with other esters. Determination of the free alcohol. The acetylation of the free alcohol in the oil was performed by gently boiling for one and a half hours with acetic anhydride and anhydrous sodium acctate, decomposing the remaining anhydride with water and washing the oil until the water ceased to react acid. 15066 grammes of this oi) required -3164 gramme potash ; saponification figure = 210 equal to 73:5 per cent. geranyl acetate. As 60°34 per cent. existed as ester in the original oil we have 13:16 per cent. of ester formed from the free alcohol present. The free geraniol in the oil was thus 10°64 per cent. Determination of the acid of the ester. The aqueous portion after saponifying the oil was evaporated to small bulk and distilled with sulphuric acid, adding water until it ceased to distil acid. The distillate gave the reactions for acetic acid. A portion of the distillate was exactly neutralised with barium hydrate, evaporated to dryness, heated to render the salt anhydrous, and ignited with sulphuric acid. 0°828 gramme gave 0-754 gramme barium sulphate = 91:06 per cent. A second deter- mination gave identical results. Barium acetate requires 91 37 - per cent. of barium sulphate, so that but a minute quantity of a higher volatile acid than acetic acid can be present. An odour of valeric acid was at first detected and it may be that it had been derived by oxidation of the trace of valeraldehyde detected when distilling the oil. It is not likely to be present as free acid, because the free acid present in Eucalyptus oils is entirely acetic 148 H. G. SMITH. acid, no other acid being present, at any rate in those oils which have been exhaustively investigated. The remainder of the acid distillate was neutralised with soda and evaporated to crystallising point; very fine crystals of sodium acetate were thus obtained. I wish to express my thanks to my colleague, Mr. R. T. Baker F.L.S., for botanical assistance in preparing this paper. THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. Part I. History AND BIBLIOGRAPHY. By G. H. Knrpss, F.R.A8., Lecturer in Surveying, University of Sydney. [Read before the Royal Society of N. 8S. Wales, November 7, 1900. ] ApaArT from its intrinsic interest, the determination of the direc- tion and quantity of the sun’s motion in space is important, as being the condition of further progress in developing a satisfactory system for defining the places of stars. The establishment of such fixed planes of reference as will be unaffected by the relative or absolute motions of the sun and stars, even for great periods of time, is clearly a desideratum, if not essential, in any thorough scheme of analysis of such movements. It is proposed in this paper to give an account of the history and bibliography of the development of this idea, of a motion of translation of the sun through space, and also of the determinations of its direction and amount, indicating briefly at the same time the general principles underlying the determinations. The different references are numbered for the sake of convenience. This is a step preliminary to a further consideration of the whole question, and since no such bibliography has yet been published, nor has any complete review of THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 149 the existing state of knowledge on the subject been attempted, the present sketch will not be without value in further prosecuting the attack on the problem. As to the necessity of reaching the best solution, difference of opinion cannot, of course, exist. (1) Giordano Bruno, 1584.—The conception of an indefinitely extended stellar universe, in which the sun and its planetary system is but a single and perhaps insignificant member, is one the world owes to the marvellous intuitions of Giordano Bruno, the immortality of whose memory was doubly assured when his noble mind and indomitable spirit vanished from the world in the flames of martyrdom on the 17th February 1600. ‘The magnifi- cent stars and resplendent bodies” constituted, according to Bruno, “innumerable systems of worlds not much unlike our own,” scat- tered through the ether of a boundless universe,* the suns being visible, but the planets invisible? through their smallness. Copernicus had imagined the centre of the universe, as it were, to be in the sun and immovable.* Bruno to whom the sun was merely the father of life’ for its own system, placed the centres in each star,° that is to say, they were centres merely for the systems of bodies about them; there was no general centre.’ The innumer- able worlds like ours ‘‘throned and sphered amidst the ether ” free in space,* having the principle of intrinsic motion, attract one another and move by their own inward spiritual power.’ It is in +. .‘* questi magnifici astrie lampeggianti corpi . . che sembrano e€ sono innumerabili mondi non molto dissimili a questo.”—De la causa, principio et uno, Vol.1., p. 234, Opere di Giordano Bruno. Wagner, Leipsic, 1830. 2 «In questo modo diciamo esser un infinito, cioé una eterea regione immensa, ne la quale sono innumerabili et infiniti corpi come la terra, la luna et il sole, li quali da noi son chiamati mondi composti di pieno e vacuo; per che questo spirito, quest’aria, questo etere, non solamente é circa questi corpi, ma ancora penetra dentro tutti, e viene insito in ogul cosa.”—De Vinfinito universo e mondi, Vol. 11., p. 34, op. cit. * Ibid., p. 52. * See op. cit., Vol. 1., p. 163. 5 « Padre di vita.”’ Ibid., p. 51, last line. ° De Immenso. Bk. vit., p. 600. See also De Vinfinito, Vol. I., p. 163. 7 Centum et sexaginta articuliadversus hujus tempestatis mathematicos ce4x.,Art 160. Prague1588. ®Gfrodrer 14, p. 159. ° See La Cena de le Ceneri.—Opere di Giordano Bruno, Vol. I., pp. 165 —166 etc. Wagner, 1830. 150 G. H. KNIBBS. the totality of the infinite expanse of the ether that they all move.! There are also many other passages in Bruno’s writings that shew most unmistakably the idea of a general motion among the stars to be at least as old as 1584, when the supposed ‘ Venice’ edition of Bruno’s works appeared.’ (2) Schyrleus de Rheita (Antonius Maria) 1645.—About sixty years after the publication of Bruno’s works, appeared a curious treatise by Schyrleus de Rheita, published in Antwerp under the date 1645, and entitled Oculus Enoch et Hlie etc.” This expresses with great justice the idea of a general motion among the stars. ‘‘ These,” said Schyrleus, ‘‘ possibly have their proper motion, but the enormity of their distance prevents its being perceived.” Doubtless the inspiration of this passage came from his predecessor Bruno. (3) Fontenelle, 1686.—In his celebrated discourses on the plurality of worlds published in 1686, Fontenelle recognised, in a modified way at least, the possibility of stellar motion, if not also that of the sun as one of the stars.4. Teaching that the stars were like our sun,” each being at the centre or in a vortex®—the idea of Descartes—it was possible for them to have true movement of their own, and to carry their planets along with them.’ He recognised also the perpetual motion of the matter of the universe.® (4) Halley, 1717.—Bruno’s, Schyrleus’ and Fontenelle’s opinions were of course purely conjectural; the first significant recognition \ “«Uno dunque é il cielo, il spazio immenso, il seno, il continente unversale, l’eterea regione, per la quale il tutto discorre e si muove.’”— Ibid., Vol. 11., p. 50. ? Although Bruno’s work is noted “Stampato in Venezia, Anno MDLXXXIV.,” it was actually printed in London. Other works supposed to have been printed in Paris were also printed in London. ; > Oculus Enoch et Eliz sive radius sidereo-mysticus 2 pt. Antverpiz 1645 fol. * Entretiens sur la pluralité des mondes, 1686. > Une étoile fixe est lumineuse d’elle-méme comme le Soleil . . la centre et ’d4me d’un monde, loc. cit. p. 106, edition 1719, Amsterdam. 6 Soleils des . . tourbillons, ibid. p. 107. 7 @’autres dont le soleil n’etant pas au centre, ait un veritable mouve- ment, et emporte ses planetes avec soi, ibid., p. 108. 2 ibid., p. 119. THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 151 of the existence of evidence that the so-called fixed stars did not really occupy fixed positions, but were subject to movement, is to be found in Edmund Halley’s ‘“‘Considerations on the change of the latitudes of some of the principal fixed stars” published in 1717.1. Comparing recent star places with Ptolemy’s, Halley was astonished to find that the latitudes of Aldebaran, Sirius, and Arcturus, directly contradicted the greater obliquity of the ecliptic indicated by the latitudes of most of the rest, and conjecturing that in all probability these conspicuous stars are nearest to the earth,” he remarked :—‘“‘if they have any particular motion of their own, it is most likely to be perceived in them,” that is to say, in the nearer stars. Since the problem of solar motion, is a problem of motion in relation to other stars, Halley must be con- sidered in the passage quoted, to have, implicitly at least, raised the whole question. ' Its full significance however does not appear to have occurred to him. (5) Bradley, 1747.—With Bradley*® the conception took still more definite shape, for in his paper in the Phil. Trans. of the Royal Society in 1747, he discussed the consequences, in respect of star places, of the alternative suppositions, viz., that the stars are in motion, and the sun fixed; and that the stars are fixed and the sun is in motion. Bradley clearly recognised that the problem would, if at all, be solved by taking account of the large proper motions of the nearer stars, and that a more exact knowledge of precession, aberration, and nutation, was necessary, before the problem could be properly attacked. That very knowledge, viz., of the fundamental constants of astronomy, was afterwards attained with a remarkable degree of precision, by the reduction of Bradley’s own observations and the comparison of them with Bessel’s observations and with others. * Phil. Trans. Reprint, Vol. vi., pp. 329-830, Orig. Vol. xxx., 1717. Halley was then Sec. Roy. Soe. 2p. 330. * James Bradley, D.p., F.R.s., Astron. Roy.—Phil, Trans. Reprint Vol. Ix., pp. 417 — 488, Orig. Vol. Lv., 1747-8. 152 G. H. KNIBBS. (6) Wright, 1750.—In 1750 Thomas Wright of Durham published “An original theory or new hypothesis of the universe, etc.” in which the sixth ‘letter’ bears the title ‘of general motion amongst the stars, etc.” He requires it to be granted that ‘‘all the stars are, or may be, in motion.” These speculations of Wright’s, on the nature of the stellar universe, were known to Kant prior to ; the production of his work on the same subject.” (7) Kant, 17£5.—It was however not till a period of about five years after theappearanceof Wright’s theories, that Kant published anonymously, his remarkable “Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels,’”’ in which he sketched his view of the development and mechanics of the entire sidereal system, one feature of which was the ‘“‘nebular hypothesis” of the genesis of planetary systems. It was through these offices that the human mind was familiarized with the larger conception of general stellar movement. (8) Mayer, 1760.—Five years later again, that is after the appearance of Kant’s work, Tobias Mayer, in 1760, in a memoir presented to a Gottingen Society,* compared the places of 80 stars observed by Roemer in 1706 with his own observations in 1756 and Lacaille’s in 1750. Out of these, from 15 to 20 shewed differences in declination or right ascension exceeding 15”; and in the cases of Arcturus, Sirius, Procyon, Altair, Piscis Aus- trinus, the differences were so great that there could be no question as to the reality of the stellar motion. Mayer pointed out that the sun, as well as the stars, might be conceived as having absolute motion. (9) Lambert, 1761.—In 1761 Heinrich Lambert’ published some speculations concerning the universe, surmising that ‘“‘everything revolves,” the earth round the sun, the sun round the centre of his * Lond. 4to. pp. xii.+84, plates 32. See also Phil. Mag., April 1848, pp. 241 - 252.—De Morgan’s account of Wright’s speculations. ? Kant, according to Struve, obtained his knowledge of Wright’s view from the Hamburgische freie Urtheile of 1751. 3 Leipzic, 8vo 1755. + Opera Inedita, 1775. * Cosmologische Briefe, Augsburg 1761. EE THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 153 system, this group round still another centre, and soon. How- ever wild such surmises may now appear they were efficient in stimulating inquiry as to the nature of the evidence of general stellar movement, and of course cannot even now be proved to be utterly false. (10) Michell, 1767.—Six years later, an “inquiry into the probable parallax and magnitude of the fixed stars, from the quantity of light which they afford us, and the particular circum- stances of their situation,” was sent forth by Michell.t In this it was argued that the apparent change of place might be due to either solar or stellar motion, or to both combined,” and Michell observed that if the annual parallax of a few of the stars should at any time be ascertained, it might serve as a basis for the calcu- lation of the distances of others. He regarded the sun as merely one member of a great system of stars. (11) Lalande, 1776.—Lalande’ in 1776, applied, to the theory of the sun’s motion, the somewhat fanciful doctrine, that a force, causing a revolution of a body about its centre, impelled the body onwards through space. He did not however, contribute anything of moment to the question. (12) Prévost, 1781.—The first attempt to definitely calculate the direction of the solar motion was, I believe, made in Germany by Prévost, and published in the Nouveaux Mémoires of the Berlin Academy for 1781.* Prévost’s investigation, based upon the proper motions in Tobias Mayer’s table, led him to an opposite conclusion to that drawn by Mayer himself; for he, Prévost, was satisfied, contrary to Mayer’s view, that the table afforded distinct indication of motion, and selecting 26 stars for discussion ; he fixed the coordinates of the point towards which the sun must, from their apparent motions, be supposed to really move, as R.A. = 230°, D. = + 25° 1 Rev. John Michell, B.D., F.R.s.—-Phil. Trans, Reprint Vol. x11., pp. 423 — 440, 1767. 2 p. 433. > Mem. l’Acad. Sc., Paris 1776. +p. 418. See also Berl. Astr. Jahrb. 1786, 259. 154 G. H. KNIBBS. a result nearly agreeing with the deduction of Herschel two years afterwards.’ Prévost raised the question as to whether, assuming comets to enter our system from without, more ought not to appear from the advancing than from the opposite quarter. (13) Herschel, 1783.—In 1783 Herschel’s paper ‘“‘On the proper motion of the sun and solar system etc.,” appeared in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.? Using Dr. Maskelyne’s account of the proper motions of a number of stars, he formed two tables, one containing 32 stars; the other 12. He concluded that the solar motion cannot be less than that which the earth has in her annual] orbit, and assigned a point near X Herculis, with the codrdinates, according to Galloway, Ger 1° R.Av= 2977, Wr 2s as the positive direction of the motion at that date. In the post- script to his paper he says, that out of 44 stars, the apparent movement of which were examined, 32 agree with the hypothesis, and the remaining 12 cannot be accounted for by it. This ‘must therefore be ascribed to a real motion of the stars themselves, or to some more hidden cause of a still remoter parallax.” Herschel’s method of solution depended upon the direction of the proper motion of the stars, the intersections of which on the celestial +The Encyclopedia Britannica 9° Edit. x1., p. 767, the article being by Prof. Pritchard, by implication rather than specific statement credits Herschel with being the author of the idea of solar motion. Although he, Herschel, made no acknowledgments, Prévost’s work was probably widely known. Proctor also fails to recognise Prévost’s result. see Encyc. Brit. 11., p. 819. It may be mentioned that Galloway writing on 4th March, 1847 says, (Phil. Trans. Reprint, Vol. Lxv., p. 83): :—‘* In the saine year (i. e., 1783) in which Sir W. Herschel’s paper appeared i in the Trans- actions, Prévost communicated the results of a similar inquiry to the Berlin Academy ina memoir which was published in the Nouveaux Mémoires of that Society for 1781.” It may be further remarked that in 1894 in the Abh. d. k. Leop.-Carol. Akad., Bd. 64, p. 215, Kobold says, «William Herschel im Jahre 1783 zuerst das Vorhandensein einer fort- schreitenden Bewegung unseres Sonnensystems darlegte und die Richtung dieser Bewegung bestimmte . . .’’ . That is to say Kobold has failed to notice Prévost’s claim to priority. ? William Herschel—Phil. Trans. Reprint, Vol. xv., pp. 397 - 409. The remainder of the title is:—‘‘ With an account of several changes that have happened among the fixed stars since the time of Mr. Flamsteed. See also Ber]. Astr, Jahrb. 1787, p. 224. THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 155. sphere are of course considered as the points to and from which the sun is moving. (14) Du Séour, 17S6.—It is stated in the Connaissance des. Temps for 1809,’ that Duséjour occupied himself with the problem of solar motion. This would probably be found in his analytical treatise of the movements of celestial bodies.” (15) Kliigel, 1789.—The Berlin ephemeris in 1789 contained formule by Kliigel,® for deducing the direction of the sun’s path in space, the point which he assigned having for its codrdinates the values LS PAO) ADS mee 7 The deduction was also based on the proper motions of Mayer’s table. (16) Wurm, 1795.—The Berlin Astronomical Yearbook was in 1795 again the repository of a discussion of the trend of our system in the stellar universe; viz.,in Wurm’s article on the degree of certainty of our knowledge of the movement of our system through space.* (17) Prévost P. and Maurice, F., 1801.—In the memoirs of the Berlin Academy in 1801, adetermination by Prévost and Maurice,” based on a discussion of the proper motion from 1756 to 1797 of 39 stars, of the point to which the motion of our system is directed, was given. The result was also published afterwards in the Berlin Ephemeris, viz., in 1805.° (18) Biot, 1805.—Jean Baptiste Biot in his Traité élémentaire d’astronomie physique,’ published in 1805, also deduced formule 1 Sur le mouvement du systéme planétaire, pp. 377 — 382. 2 Traité analytique des mouvemens apparens des corps célestes, Paris 1786-9, 2 tomes 4°, 3 Trigonometrische Formeln zu der Untersuchung iiber die Fortriick- ung der Sonne und der Sterne.—Berl. Astr. Jahrb. 1789, 214. * Ueber den Grad der Zuverlissigkeit unserer Kenntniss von einer eigenen Bewegung unserer Sonnensystems.—Berl. Astr. Jahr 1795, p. 175. 5 Mém. Berlin Acad. 1801, pp. 118 — 131. 6 Bode, Berl. Astr. Jahrb,, 1805, pp. 113 - 126. 7The edition to which I have access is 1811. The treatment of the problem is entitled ‘“‘Sur le mouvement de translation dn systéme ’ planétaire,” t. 111., additions pp. 114-129. 156 G. H. KNIBBS. for the computation of the codrdinates of the direction of the sun’s path. He computed the intersections of great circles determined by the proper motions of Aldebaran, Capella, Sirius, Procyon, "Pollux, Arcturus, a Lyre, and a Aquile, as given by Zach’ from comparisons of Bradley’s places with Maskelyne’s, and of Mayer’s with Piazzi’s. Biot’s system of axes was identical with Airy’s hereinafter mentioned. His theoretical expression for the “secular ” analogous to that for parallax in altitude, contained parallax, the factor,—the solar motion divided by the distance of the star. The absolute values of these he said, were impossible of determin- ation. Selecting Sirius, Procyon, and Arcturus as stars whose proper motions were most suitable for a determination, he found the point towards which our system tends, to have the following coordinates, viz. R.A. = 249°0, D.= +36°4 Biot shewed that the evidence indicated displacements among the stars themselves: 7.e., the changes of apparent place could not be wholly due to the sun’s motion. (19) Herschel, LSO5.—In May of the same year (1805), William Herschel? returned to the problem, Dr. Maskelyne’s proper motions of 36 stars, the table of which he published in 1790, affording the necessary material for a more elaborate computation than he had at first undertaken. Herschel stated that the possi- bility of solar motion had been shewn upon theoretical principles by Dr. Wilson of Glasgow, and the probability, by Lalande, to which latter reference has already been made. He assigned for the point of direction, the position R.A. = 245°9, D.= +49°°6 this being based upon the proper motions of 6 stars only, and so determined that the sum of the true proper motions should be a minimum. He discussed also the quantity of the motion. (20) Herschel, 1806.—On February of the year following, (viz., 1806) Herschel read a further paper ‘‘on the quantity and velocity * Tabule speciales aberrationis et nutationis, etc. * Phil. Trans. Reprint Vol. xx111., pp. 233 — 256, 1805. Also Berl. Astys Jabrb., 1811, p. 224. THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 157 of the solar motion.” He gave—p. 233—its value calculated for the distance of Sirius as 1°"117, and remarked on the possibility of the sun forming a unit in a very extensive stellar system. He also pointed out that it could not possibly be one member of a binary combination, as for example, with Arcturus. It may be mentioned further, that he assigned the following values for the relative distances of Sirius, Arcturus, Oapella, a Lyre, Aldebaran and Procyon, viz., 1, 1:2, 1°25, 1:3, 1-4 and 1-4. (21) Prévost, 1SO8.—In 1808 a further attempt of Prévost’s to deduce the solar motion appeared in the Bibliotheque brittanique.? (22) Burkhardt, 18S09.—Herschel’s scheme for deducing the solar motion in space was objected to by Burkhardt in a memoir published in the Connaissance des Temps of 1809. Burkhardt gave formule for the solution of this problem, and applied these to several of the stars in Maskelyne’s catalogue. The discrepancy among the results led him to conclude that we were not in pos- session of sufficient information to justify any deduction. His contention that the Herschelian method of solution, based on the assumption that the sum of the true proper motions of the stars must be a minimum, was equivalent to supposing that the stars are inclined to rest rather than to motion, shews a singular mis- apprehension of the nature of the problem. (224) Gauss, 1810 ?—According to Ludwig Struve,’? Gauss assigned the values ea 200° 2, Di 30" S for the direction of the solar motion. No reference is given so that the date is uncertain. (23) Bessel, 1518.—In 1818 it was again, this time more elaborately, investigated by Bessel in the 12th section of the Fundamenta astronomic. After discussing the proper motions of 71 stars, each being not less than 0°’5 annually, and finding that 1 Phil. Trans. Reprint Vol. xxiv., pp. 205 — 237. ?t, XXXIX., pp. 192-210, 1808. ? Mem. Acad. St. Petersb., 7me série, t. KxXv., (3). 158 G. H. KNIBBS. this number gave no certain result, Bessel concluded that a con- siderable period must elapse before the true theory of solar motion can be made out. The Besselian method depended upon the principle that the poles of the proper motions give a reliable indication of the sun’s path in reference to the stars considered. (24) Olbers, 1821.—In 1821 Olbers calculated the direction of the path in space of our system from the proper motion of 82 stars. This was published in connection with his correspondence with Bessel. (25) Argelander, 1857.—Argelander’s great memoir “On the proper motion of the solar system,” presented to the Academy of St. Petersburg in 1837° may be said to be the first systematic attempt to discuss the problem with anything like the thoroughness it deserved ; 390 stars with proper motions sufficiently large were available, by comparing Bessel’s reductions of Bradley’s observa- tions with Argelander’s own ‘1830’ catalogue.’ These stars were divided into classes as follows, and with the following results for the year 1792-5 :— Classi: EM 21 Stars R.A. 260°8 D.+31°3 » UW 4 -lL’O—0°"5. 50: ,,. |, ., , 200° 25 mee 5 lt Gy O10 107097 Solos. » 2012" \ ees The general result corrected to the beginning of this century eo es R.A. =259°9, D.= +32°5° Argelander’s fundamental assumption was that the distances of the stars varied inversely as their proper motions. His reduc- 1 Point vers lequel se dirige le systéme solaire, d’aprés les mouvements propres de 82 étoiles. Olbers u. Bessel.—Briefwechsel, herausg. von A. Erman 11., 1852, p. 220. * Ueber die eigene Bewegung des Sonnensystems.—Mém. d. sav. étr. de l’acad. impér. St. Petersb., t. 111.. pp. 561 — 605. 3 DLX Stellarnm fixarum positiones medie, ineunte anno 1830. Ex observationbus Aboz habitis deduxit—Kelsingforsie, 1835. + P.M. denotes as usual, proper motion. 5 The values given for the second calculation and final result are in the St. Petersburg Memoirs— 1. 255°°9; 37°°8 11. 258°2; 89 2 1792°5 Ill. 262°0; 29°2 For mean, 1800 —260°°8; 31°°3.—Vide pp. 589 - 590. Argelander corrects these in the memoir published i in the Astron. Nach.: the (One values are those above given. THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE, 159 tion was as follows :—The angles Y made by the P.M’s. with circles of declination were first computed, and then, assuming a point @ for the direction of the solar motion, the angles &’ which the stars’s path made with the meridians thereof, were also calcu- lated. The value of ’ was differentiated on the supposition that the R.A. and D. of Q are variables. In the resulting expression the value of the differences of Y and W’ were substituted for dy’, and thus an equation was obtained in which there are two undeter- mined quantities dA say, and dD. These equations on being solved by the method of least squares, gave values to be applied as corrections to the assumed values of the R.A. and D, of @. The successive application of this process with recomputed values of R.A., D. and ’ gave that position of Q which most nearly repre- sented the whole of the observations. (26) Struve, I. G. W. von, 1837.,—A report by Struve on Argelander’s work appeared in the Bulletin of the St. Petersburg Academy of Science in 1837,’ and some correspondence between him and H. C. Schumacher, the founder of the Astronomische Nachrichten, also took place, in the same year,’ relative to the solar motion. (27) Wartmann, L. F., 1837.’—In the same year also, an article was contributed by Wartmann to the Society of Switzerland, on the general motion of translation of our whole system in space. (28) Taylor, T. G., 1838.-—The Madras Literary and Scientific Journal for 1838 contained a reference to the solar motion in space by Taylor of the Observatory of that place. * Rapport sur le mémoire de EF’. Argelander : Ueber die eigene Bewegung des Sonnensystems hergeleitet aus den eigenen Bewegungen der Sterne. Petersb. Bull. Scient. Acad. 11., 1837, pp. 1138, 129. ? Auszug aus einem Schreiben an H. C. Schumacher, Astr. Nach. xiv, 1837, 315; Bibliothéque universelle de Genéve (2) x., 1837, 161. 3 Sur le mouvement général de translation de tout ’ensemble de notre systéme solaire.—Soc. Helvét. Act., 1837, pp. 71-74. * Result of astronomical observations made at the Madras Observatory: Motion of the Solar system in space.—Madras Journ. Lit. and Sci., (1) vil., 1838, pp. 387 — 399, 479. 160 ; G. H. KNIBBS. (29) Cauchy, 1889..—In 1839 Cauchy cursorily remarked in connection witha brief discussion on the effect of motion on the behaviour of luminous rays, that “if our sun move in space it translates with it the whole planetary system”; and he points out that on the supposition that the system to some extent carries the ether with it, there is nothing extraordinary in the fact that the refractions of luminous rays from stars in opposite points of | the heavens, viz., the points from which and to which we are moving, are equal. This is probably one of the earliest recognitions that the solar motion in space may perhaps produce optical effects of an important character : a question however which has recently been exhaustively discussed. See for example ‘‘Aether and | Matter,” by Larmor, Cambridge University Press, 1900. (30) Grurthuisen, 1840.,—In 1840 Gruithuisen, in a memcir in the Astronomisches Jahrbuch for that year, pointed out that meteors afford evidence of the path of the sun in space, (31) Lundahl, 1840.—The Abo catalogue, by Argelander, did not contain the whole of Bradley’s stars given in the Fundamenta Astronomix. On comparing the latter work with Pond’s cata- logue of 1,112 stars reduced at the beginning of 1830, Lundahl found as many as 147 stars with P. Ms. not less than 0°09 annually, which had not been included in Argelander’s investigation. The reduction of these gave the result R.A. =252°4, D.= +14°4 for the epoch 1792°5. Combining this result with those previously obtained by Argelander, and having regard to the weight of each, gave for 1800 ReAs = 201-79 DS eas This investigation was published by Argelander in the Astrono- mische Nachrichten.? ' Note sur Pégalité des refractions de deux rayons lumineux qui émanent. de deux étoiles situées dans deux portions opposées de Pécliptique. — Comptes rendus, vitr., 1839, pp. 327 — 329. 2 Die Sternschnuppen zeigen, wohin die Sonne den Weg im Weltraum nimmt.—Astr. Jahrb. 1840, 1 (Gruithuisen). 3 Astr. Nach., No. 398, pp. 209 - 216. THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 161 (32) Wolfers, 1541.—W olfers contribution on the proper motion of our system appeared in the monthly notices of the Geographical Society of Germany for 1841." (33) Richter, Hd., 1842.°—In the following year the proceedings of the Dessau Natural History Society contained Richter’s paper upon the same subject, and on the velocity of the motion. (34) Struve, O., 1842.—The determination of the solar motion was next undertaken in 1841 by Otto von Struve, his researches being published in 1842 at St. Petersburg. It was pased upon the proper motion of 392 stars, whose mean places according to Bessel’s catalogue were compared with their positions in 1825 deduced from observations made at the Dorpat Observatory. Of these only about 134 had been iucluded in Argelander’s series ; about 260 were new. Struve’s fundamental hypothesis was that the distances of the stars were in the inverse order of their magnitudes; and dividing stars from the first to the seventh magnitude into twelve classes, he assigned unity as the distance of the first and 11:34 as that of the twelfth class, following the indication of the elder Struve* in the introduction to his catalogue of double stars.” Otto Struve’s result reduced to 1792°5 was R.A. = 261°4, D,= +37°°6 and combining these values with the three determinations by Argelander and one by Lundahl, he obtained for the same epoch, R.A. = 259°2, D.= +34°°6. (35) Bravats, 1843.°—In 1843 Bravais communicated to the French Academy of Sciences, two notes on the solar-motion deter- 1 Ueber die eigene Bewegung unseres Sonnensystems.—Monatsber. Gesell. Erdkunde 11., 1841, pp. 37, 38. 2 Ueber die eigene Bewegung der Sonne und deren Geschwindigkeit.— Dessau Verhandl. des Naturh. Vereins 1., 1842, pp. 14-17. *Mém. 1’Académie, t. v., 1842, pp. 17-124.—Bestimmung der Con- stanten der Precession, mit Beriicksichtigung der eigenen Bewegung des Sonnensystems. See also Astr. Nach., Bd. xx1., 1844, pp. 65 - 74. * Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve—Recueil Pétersb. Acad., 1832. Introd. in Cat. nov. Stell dup. > See Dunkin, 1863, hereinafter. 6 Memoire sur le mouvement propre du systéme solaire dans l’espace. —Journ. de Math. pur et appliq., t. vi1., 1843, p. 435. Comptes rendus, t. XvI., 1843,pp. 494-498; t. xvi1., 1843, pp. 888 — 889. K—WNov. 7, 1900 162 G. H. KNIBBS. mined upon the assumption that the 71 fundamental stars, whose proper motions were discussed, belonged to the one dynamic system, whose centre of inertia was supposed to be at rest. Bravais recognised the great disadvantage of insufficient information as to proper motions of stars in the southern hemisphere, and discussed the effect of taking into account the distances of the stars and . their distribution in the celestial sphere. In the second note he found that, basing fresh calculations on the proper motions of 62 stars of the first and second magnitudes in the 1755 and 1830 catalogues, the sun’s trajectory was directed to a point nearly coincident with y Herculis, and that its path annually was 0°"28 at the mean distance of stars of the first magnitude. The position of 7 Herculis for 1843 would give R.A. = 249°4, D.=+39°2 R.=0-728 as the codrdinates of the direction of the sun’s motion at that date: R denotes mean distance of stars of first magnitude. (36) Bolzano, 1843.'—Doppler had conceived and published the idea that when a source of light, as a star, has a velocity as high as thirty-three miles a second, to or from the observer, a sensible consequent variation should exist, as he believed, in its colour.? Bolzano imagined that the changes of the light of the stars, taking place through such movement, could be made to afford some indication of its velocity, the distances between the stars and so on. It will be necessary to refer to this matter later ; when the nature of Doppler’s misconception will be further adverted to. (37) Otto Struve and Peters, 1844?—Faye in 1859 quotes Struve and Peters as having assigned the codrdinates R.A. = 259°75, D.= +34°55 as specifying the direction of the path of our system in space for the epoch 1859.° 1 Hine Paar Bemerkungen tiber die neue Theorie in Herrn Doppler’s Schrift “ Ueber das farbige Licht der Doppelsterne.”—Pogg. Annal., Bd. Lx., 1843, pp. 83 — 88. 2 Abhandl. der k. béhm. Gesell., Fol. v., Bd. 11., 1841-2, pp. 465 — 482. 3 Comptes rendus, 5 Dec. 1859, p. 873. THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 163 (38) Madler, 1846.—In 1839 Madler succeeded Friedrich Struve at Dorpat ; the latter having been assigned the directorship of the Pulkova Observatory, then the best organized observatory in the world, and in 1840 he discussed the present state of our knowledge of the System of the Universe,’ following on in 1846 with his own theory of the position of the ‘central sun,”” about which our sun and its neighbours were supposed to revolve. The idea was by no means a new one. Long before the architecture of the stars had been systematically studied, Kant, to whose work reference has already been made, had speculated on the possibility of Sirius being the centre of revolution. Lambert, was inclined to regard the vast nebula in Orion as the controlling centre: Herschel the great cluster in Hercules, estimated by him to con- tain 14,000 stars:? Argelander selected a point, R.A. = 49° D. = + 544°, in Perseus :* Boguslawski gave preference to Fomal- haut in Piscis Australis. Madler’s idea was that the sidereal system revolved about its common centre of inertia, and from the direction and quantity of rotation he concluded that Alcyone {n Tauri) was, in a passive sense, this centre. The distance thereto he computed to be thirty-four million times the radius of the earth’s mean distance from the sun, and the great revolution to be made in 18-2 million years, with a velocity of thirty miles per second. Later Madler published’? a more complete exposition, which will be more fully referred to hereinafter. (39) Mitchell, 1847.—In 1847 an article by Mitchell appeared on the proper motion of the solar system® in the Sidereal Messenger. 1 Ueber den gegenwartigen standpunkt unseres Kenntniss der Welt- systeme.—Oken, Isis, 1840, pp. 823 — 835. 2 Die Central Sonne—Astr. Nach. 566, 567, pp. 218-237. Bibl. Univ. Archives 111.. 1846, pp.5 - 29. Seealso, Uebersicht der neuesten Erweiter- ungen und des gegenwiartigen Standes unserer Kenntniss des Sonnen- systems.—Miinchen, Gelehrte Anz. xx11., 1846, pp. 755 — 792. 3 Phil. Trans. Reprint Vol. xxtv., p. 230, 1806. *Mem. St. Pétersb. Acad. t. 111., p. 608, 1837. 5 Die Higenbewegungen der Fixsterne in ihren Beziehungen zum Gesammtsystem, Dorpat, 1856. ie, 1947, p. 70. 164 G. H. KNIBBS. (40) Galloway, 1847.—On the year following the appearance of Midler’s memoir on a “ Central Sun,” Thomas Galloway,' secre- tary of the Royal Astronomical Society, studied the solar-motion problem with new material. He selected 81 stars in the southern hemisphere, observed by Johnson and Henderson, comparing their places with the catalogues of Lacaille and Bradley. These stars had a P.M. of at least 0°’1 per annum, 65 depending on Lacaille and 16 on Bradley’s results. In respect of the principle of com- puting the solar motion, Galloway argued that each equation should have equal weight since we know nothing of the absolute velocity of a star’s motion, or of its distance. His final deduc- tions, based on the assumption indicated, were :— 81 stars, general result :— R.A.=263°8 D.= +37°3 79 stars, re-calculated with two stars rejected .. Ay gas 257° ae 34°°3 78 stars, re- ealenlared sith a anvils rejection of one star ... eae cits 260: 09tae 34°°4 The coordinates are for the epoch 1790. Galloway considered the possible error of the catalogues, and shewed that the annual P.M. 0-1, was greater than the probable error of the catalogue. The close accord with the results of Argelander and Struve he regarded as considerably enhancing the probability of the conclusions reached. (41) Encke, 1847.?—In an article on von Struve’s study of stellar astronomy, Encke discussed Gauss’ representations respect- ing the uncertainty of our knowledge of the direction of the sun’s movement.? Struve had, according to Encke, assigned a point in the line joining the two third-magnitude stars 7 and p Herculis, one-fourth of the whole distance from the former—that is a point whose codrdinates in 1847 would be R.A. = 259°°3, D.= +34°7 This is obviously the result previously given, see (34). 1 On the proper motion of the Solar System by Thomas Galloway, M.A., F.R.S.—Phil. Trans. Reprint Vol. txv., pp. 79—109, March, 1847. 2 Ueber die ‘‘ etudes d’astronomie stellaire ’’ von Struve.—Astr. Nach. XXvVI., 1848, pp. 337 — 350. 3 Gauss, Darstellung hinsichtlich der Ungewissheit in der Bestimmung der Richtung der Sonnenbewegung.—Loc. cit., p. 348. THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 165 (42) Fleury, 1852.'—In 1852, Fleury indicated what he believed to be a suitable experimental method for determining the amount of motion of the solar system. (43) Plana, 1852.°—Plana, discussing in the Astronomische Nachrichten of 1852, Galloway’s results, gave as the result from 81 stars, computed by stricter methods, RAS = 260592, Ds — F309 Epoch 1790. In his solution he applied the method of least squares and discussed Galloway’s solution at same length. (44) Struve, Ff. G. W., von, 1853.°—The first volume of the collection of Memoirs (1852 or 1853) of the Pulkova Observatory contains one by Friedrich Struve on ‘Results relating to the proper motion of the Solar System.” (45) Arago, 1855.*— Arago, in his popular astronomy, refers at some length to the work done by different astronomers, on the computation of the sun’s path in space ; he however contributes nothing original, and as a bibliography his chapter is incomplete. (46) Mddler, 1856.°—In 1856 Madler made a second and much more thorough determination based on the proper motions of no less than 2,163 stars. This gave— 13 ey HONS IDR SS ao, for the direction of the sun’s motion, a direction which it has since been shewn is probably the prevailing one for several stars near our system.° (47) Airy, 1859.—In March 1859, Airy also investigated the question under discussion.’ Pointing out what he conceived to be + Méthode expérimentale propre 4 déterminer le mouvement absolu de Soleil.—Cherbourg, Mém. Soe. Sci. 1., 1852, pp. 336. ? Mémoire sur Ja direction probable que Mr. T. Galloway assigne au mouvement propre du systéme solaire, etc.—Astr. Nachr. xxxiv., 1852, pp. 301 - 326. * Résultats relatifs . . au mouvement propre du systéme solaire.— Poulkova, Recueil de Mém. 1., 1852 or 1858. * Mouvements propres des étoiles et translation du systéme solaire.— Astronomie populaire 11., 1855, p. 19. * Détermination de la direction suivant la quelle se meut le systéme solaire.—Dorpat, Beob. x1v., 1856, p. 223. 6 See Klinkerfues, 1878, hereinafter. “On the movement of the Solar system in Space.—Monthly Notices, Roy. Astr. Soc., Vol. x1x., pp. 175-180, 1859. See also Memoirs, Vol XXVIII., pp. 143 — 172, 1860. 166 G. H. KNIBBS. the impracticability of Herschel’s graphic method when the number of proper motions to be considered was large, and the impropriety of assuming the point to be determined, he proposed a method of rectangular codrdinates, with a general weight multiplier to be attached to any class of stars defined by brilliancy or any characteristic, other than the magnitude of the proper motion itself. His system of axes, identical with Biot’s, was—a, the sun’s centre at a fixed epoch (an equinox); y, the point whose R.A. was 90°, the xy plane being parallel to the earth’s equator ; z was parallel to the earth’s axis and + tothe north. The proper motions reduced on this system were treated as chance quantities by the theory of errors. Airy clearly saw that the probable _ inequalities of motion, in the stars forming the cluster to which we may be supposed to belong, limited in some measure the strict- ness of this method, and he directed the attention of future investigators to the point. He also considered the influence of the systematic error, which may have crept into the computations by which the proper motions themselves were determined. Those used in his discussion, were taken from Main’s papers in the Monthly Notices and the Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society, giving altogether the proper motions of about 1,200 stars, from comparisons of Bradley’s places computed by Bessel, with the places given in the Greenwich 12-year, and subsequent 6-year catalogues.’ In the analysis, two extreme suppositions were con- sidered : (a) that the irregularities of proper motion were entirely due to chance errors of observation: (6) that they were due to the motions peculiar to the stars themselves, the latter supposition being regarded as in the main the true one. Airy was guided by F.. von Struve as to assumptions respecting the supposed relation between the magnitude and distance of the stars. It is worthy of special remark that he, Airy, seems to have been the first to clearly recognise what may be called the relativity of the problem. 1 Rev. Rk. Main—Proper Motions of 875 stars, etc. Monthly Notices, Vol, x., pp. 118, 122, (1850). Proper motions, Greenwich 12-year cata- logue, etc. Memoirs, Vol. xtx., (1851). Proper motions, Greenwich catalogue of 1,576 stars, etc. Memoirs, Vol. xxvit., pp. 127 - 142, 1858, published 1860. THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 167 He points out that we may arbitrarily take as the zero of our space codrdinates, the place of one body or the mean of the places. of many bodies ; and in computing the sun’s motion we are really referring that motion to the mean place of the stars included in the investigation, considered as a fixed point, or more strictly as a point of reference. Denoting by R the sun’s proper motion as. seen from the distance of a star of the first magnitude, Airy found the elements of the solar motion for suppositions (a) and (0) to be as follows, for the epoch 1840 (?):— (a) Rex — 25679, D.= +395, Rho 17269 (b) 261°°5, +24°7, 3). 7: Struve had, in his ‘Bestimmung der Constante der Preecession,” found only 0°-”339 for the quantity of the solar motion, just about one sixth of Airy’s estimate. This will serve to indicate the uncertainty as to the velocity of translation through space, deduced in this way. (48) Carrick, 1859.'—Carrick’s paper on the sun’s orbit plane, in the proceedings of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester, discussed, I believe, the solar motion. [As there is no available copy in Sydney I cannot verify this however]. (49) Faye, 1859.’—In discussing the effect of the motion of the solar system through space, upon Fizeau’s then recent attempt to determine whether the azimuth of the polarisation of a refracted ray is affected by the movement of the refracting body,’ Faye quoted the value assigned by Otto Struve and Peters for the year 1859, as being R.A. =259°7, D.= +34°5, V.=7-9 kilometres per second. (50) Liagre, 1859.A—Liagre’s memoir to the Brussels’ Royal Academy of Sciences in 1859, furnished references to the results obtained by different investigators and discussed the significance 1 Proc. Lit. Phil. Soc., Manchester, Vol. 1., p. 187, 1860. * Sur les experiences de M. Fizeau, considerées au point de vue du mouvement de translation du systéme solaire.—Comptes rendus XLIx., 1859, pp. 870-875. °Ibid., pp. 717 — 723. * Sur les mouvements propres des étoiles et du soleil_—Brux. Bull. Acad. viit., 1859, 158. 168 G. H. KNIBBS. of the question, but he contributed nothing fundamental to the then existing material. His memoir gives however a fair idea of the state of knowledge of the question in his day, but is meagre from a bibliographical or historical point of view. | (51) Gautier, A., 1859.\—Gautier contributed in the same year a notice on the later researches of Midler. (52) Peters, 1860.—In 1860 Peters again discussed the nature of the proper motion of the fixed stars, with reference to the hypothesis of Midler, that the stellar system revolved round Alcyone as a central sun.’ (53) Babinet, 1862.—In a paper on the influence of the motion of the earth on optical phenomena,’ in October 1862, Babinet quotes the codrdinates of the direction of our motion in space as R.A.= 2607, Do— —-3£ 0, Vi—O:201= S being the annual orbit of the earth. These are evidently Struve’s results for the direction. (54) Carrington, 1863.—Carrington discussing very briefly the consequence of motion of translation of our whole system through © space, concludes that any attempt to deduce the direction of motion from the apparitions of non-periodic comets is nugatory.* (55) Angstrim, 1868,— Angstrom in 1861 suggested to the Royal Scientific Society of Upsala a purely optical method of determining the motion of translation of the solar system, which was practically identical with Babinet’s, previously briefly referred to. In 1863, he published results of an attempt to thus deduce proof of the motion, experiments shewing that the influence of 1 Notice sur les derniéres recherches de M. Madler relatives au mouve- ment général des étoiles autour d’un point central.—Archiv. d. Sci. phys. et nat. Iv., 1859, p. 305. * Ueber die Higenbewegungen die Fixsterne, mit Bezug auf Herrn Miadler’s Hypothese der Bewegung der Sterne um Alcyone als Central- sonne.— Peters, Zeitschrift 1., 1860, pp. 88 — 130. * Comptes rendus, t. Lv., 1862, pp. 561 - 564. * Monthly Notices, Roy. Astr. Soc., Vol. xxx111., pp. 203-204. THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 169 the earth’s annual motion appears to be verified, but the evidence of solar motion was doubtful.’ (56) Dunkin, 1863.—In 1863 Dunkin computed the solar motion from the proper motions of 1,167 stars.” These he arranged in seven groups according to Struve’s magnitude-parallax theory, the distribution in right ascension being nearly uniform, and about two-thirds of the stars being in the northern hemisphere. The assumed relative distances, and the number of stars corres- ponding to each were : | Distance EOF 2 Oh Peo On Oe eS 0) Wea perocsors: Dist. 1:0 47 3:2 41 20 - 4d 5:0 No. of Stars god) 146579238330) 368 21 The results on Airy’s two suppositions were— (Gee ee 20 2 Di 2d) RR, —0'7300 (0) 263°7 25°°0 0-410 Dunkin remarked that probably a few stars of the fourth, fifth, and sixth magnitudes with large proper motions, are after all near stars, and notwithstanding that his values for the quantity of solar motion were sensibly the same as Struve’s, 0°”339, he regards the fundamental assumptions as resting upon a very slender basis. (57) Stone, 1863.—On 11th December, 1863, E. J. Stone, con- tributed a discussion merely on the quantity of the solar motion. Accepting R.A. = 260° N.P.D.=55°°37' as the direction thereof, he found, rejecting stars within 10° of the pole, from the proper motions in R.A. 0°"434, and from those in N.P.D. 0°°341. The mean 0°’403 would represent the motion at the mean distance of the group of stars considered. Stone alleges that if Bradley’s * Ny bestamning af ljusets vaglingder jemte en method att pa optisk vag bestimma solsystemets progressiva rérelse.—Oefv. Vetensk. Akad. Forhandl., Stockholm, Bd. xx., p. 41, 1868. Seealso Pogg. Annal., cxvit., p. 290, and Phil. Mag. Vol. xxrx., 4 Ser., 1865, pp. 489 — 501. ? Monthly Notices.—Roy. Astr. Soc., Vol. xx111., pp. 166 —169. 3 See hereinafter. * On the motion of the solar system in space.— Month. Not. Roy, Astr. Soc., Vol. xxiv., pp. 36 - 39, 1864. 170 G. H. KNIBBS. R.A. required a correction in the form of x cos R.A.+ysin R.A. the apparent drift would be at once accounted for. (58) Reddie, 1864.—The Astronomical Register of 1864 con- tained an article by Reddie, expressing disbelief as to the motion of the solar system in space. The paper provoked some anonymous discussion in the pages of that journal,’ but neither the paper nor discussions contribute anything of permanent interest. (59) Babinet, 1864.—Babinet, in an article in Cosmos in 1864, discussed the possibility of the solar motion being that of one component of a double star.’ (60) Stone, 1867,—In 1867 Stone considered the question of the probability of the existence of solar motion, from the number of cases of mere agreement or disagreement of the signs of the proper motion and parallactic displacement.* His conclusion was that the preponderance over the number required by mere proper motion was sufficient evidence of the reality of the displace- ment, but that on the whole the parallactic displacement due to the motion of our system through space was much smaller than the independent proper motion of the stars. (61) Hoek, 1868.—Iu reply to a query of Delaunay’s as to whether there was evidence of solar motion in the inclinations, with the plane of the earth’s orbit about the sun, of the planes of the non-periodic comets, and also in their excentricities, Hoek stated in 1868 that, subject to some uncertainty, the proper motion of the sun would from such evidence appear to be insignificant as compared with the mean initial motion of the comets, and from a study of the excentricities it might be deduced, that the annual path of the sun is probably inferior to three-tenths of the mean radius of the earth’s orbit.‘ It is fully recognised that such deductions are essentially precarious. If the motions of non- -1 Astron. Register, Vol. 11., pp. 37-39, 59-61, 82-84, 87-88, 164-168, 1864. 2 Cosmos, t. XXV., p. 429, 1864. 3 Motion of the Solar System in Space.—Month. Not., Roy. Astr. Soc., Vol. xxvi1., pp. 238-239, 1867. * Comptes rendus, t. LXVI., pp. 1200 — 1207, 1868. THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. A periodic comets have no general tendency, the effect of translation of our system through space on their apparent motion would be seen in the elements indicated, provided the number considered was sufficiently large. Hence evidence of this character is valuable qualitatively. Quantitatively it is of course of inferior precision, (62) Hurst, 1869.—Some correspondence on the motion of the universe appearing in a London daily, it was republished in the Astronomical Register as being of sufficient interest. One letter by Hurst, in reply to an article in Fraser’s Magazine, points out that the motion is more than “guessed at.” Hurst seemed to think that Alcyone had been shewn to occupy the centre of gravity of the sidereal system to which the sun belongs, that the direction of motion was toward z Herculis, and its quantity in one year 33,350,000 miles.1 This would be for 1869— | R.A. = 257°6, D.= +37°2, V.=1-06 miles per second. (63) Proctor, 4869.—The second letter, by Proctor, severely eriticises Hurst, and merely offers a somewhat fuller, but still very incomplete statement of the state of knowledge on the question at the time of writing.” (64) Proctor, 1869.—In the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, November 1869,’ Proctor discussed the theory of a combination of the solar motion together with the stars own motion. From a somewhat full examination of Main’s list of 1,167 stars, he points out that the evidence is apparently strongly antagonistic to the accepted view that stars of small magnitude are at greater distances, as the following table shews :— Division according Appt. P.M. Resultant Struve’s No. of to magnitude. if Distance. Distance. Stars. 1 0:857 I 1:0 I 2 0-182 47 eg lt 55 3 0-268 3°2 2°O7 146 4 0-208 4] oO 238 II 5 0°433 2°0 5°44 330 Ks: 0-191 4-5 7°86 368 a 0-173 5:0 11°34 21 1 The Motion of the Universe.—Astr. Reg., Vol. v1., p. 236. ” Astr. Reg., Vol. vi., pp. 2387-238. 3 Monthly Not. BR. A. Soc., Vol. xxx., pp. 8-18, 1869. 172 G. H. KNIBBS. The mean result from I. was 0°"3015, from II., 0°’3022, that is to say the mean distance of the stars of the first three magni- tudes is slightly less than the mean distance of those of the next three or four magnitudes! Proctor argues that large proper motion is an argument for proximity; that since there is no apparent agreement with proper motions and brightness, we are forced to accept the former, rather than the latter, as the best available evidence. (65) Flammarion, 1872.—Flammarion treats upon the motion of our translation through space in the third volume of his studies published in 1872,’ (66) Villarceau, 1872.—In a note to the French Academy of Sciences in 1872, Villarceau discusses theoretically the velocity of light and the aberration constant in relation to the absolute movement of the solar system in space.” The paper is obviously important from the theoretical point of view, in respect of the accurate determination of star places, from which the proper motions are ascertained. (67) Doppler, Fizeau, Huggins, Zoellner, 1873, etc.—The progress of science about 1873 opened up an entirely new possibility of investigating the sun’s motion in space. In 1841, Doppler of Prague had pointed out that the system of waves in the lumini- ferous medium emanating from a luminous point, must be affected by its motion to or from an observer,® the consequence of which he erroneously (Bolzano previously referred to erring with him) thought would be a perceptible change of colour. The genius of Fraunhofer* had opened up a way of detecting the shift of the spectrum, since the lines crossing it, measured by him with such amazing diligence, really do shift with motion of the light-source, 1 Translation du systéme solaire dans l’espace et relation du soleil avec les étoiles les plus proches.—Etudes et lectures, t. 111., p. 59, 1872. 2 Sur la constante de l’aberration et la vitesse de la lumiére, con- sidérées dans leurs rapports avec le mouvement absolu de translation du systéme solaire.—Comptes rendus, t. LxxxXv., pp. 854 — 860. 3 Abhandl. d. kon. béhm. Ges, d. Wiss., Bd. 11., p. 467. * Bibl. Univ. vi., 1817, pp. 21 — 26. THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. VG 8: an aspect of Doppler’s principle noticed by Fizeau! in 1848. It was not till April 1868 however, that definite estimations of movements to or from our system were made: they were then communicated to the Royal Society of England by Huggins.’ It is evident that the motion in the line of sight affords a perfectly independent method of computing the solar motion. Eighteen months after Huggins had reported his results, Zollner® devised his ingenious reversion-spectroscope, which by doubling the line displacements increased the possibility of their accurate measure- ment. (68) Villarceau, 1875.—In 1875 Villarceau contributed a second note, in continuation of the subject referred to in his note of 1872.4 No further remark is here necessary. (69) Maawell-Hall, 1876.—By 1876 not only had some con- ' siderable advance been made in the determination of velocities in the line of sight, a similar progress had also been made in the estimation of the parallax, and therefore in the distance of stars. In September of that year, Maxwell-Hall published his first memoir® commenced in 1869, on the sidereal system, in which the sun, and some of the nearer so-called ‘fixed’ stars were regarded as bound together in a great dynamical system, assumed to be subject to the ordinary laws of gravity. Hall supposed the stellar orbits to be circular, and employing the same axes as Biot and Airy, used heliocentric polar codrdinates in the developments of his equations. In adopting the direction of solar motion for the purpose of examining the evidence of the existence of a dynamical stellar system, Hall remarks that the mean of the results from 1 Paper read before Soc. Philomathique, Paris, 23 Dec. 1848. See Annal, de Chim. et de Phys., t. x1x., pp. 211 — 221, 1870. 2 Further observations etc., with an attempt to determine whether stars are moving to or from the earth etc.—Phil. Trans., Vol. civitt., pp. 529 — 564, (1868). > Leipzig, Ber. math. phys., Bd. xx111., pp. 300 —306, 1871. * Recherches sur: la théorie de l’aberration, et considérations sur Vinfluence du mouvement absolu du systéme solaire, dans le phénoméne de Vaberration.—Comptes rendus, t. Lxxx1., pp. 163 - 171, 1875. Seealso Conn. des Temps. Additions 1878. 5 Mem. Roy. Astr. Soc., Vol. xu111., pp. 157-197, Sept. 1876. 174 G. H. KNIBBS. Airy’s two suppositions is prima facie the most probable, 2.e., R.A. = 259°2, D.= +32°1 for the epoch 1840. Reducing to 1850 the mean of Argelander’s, Lundahl’s, and O. Struve’s results as I.; putting Galloway’s reduced result from southern stars as IJ.; and the mean of Airy’s two results also reduced to 1850 as III., he adopted the general mean for 1850, as shewn hereunder, R.A. D:+. he 25 9R aly 34 So. II. 260°33 34°20 III. 259-18 32:05 Mean 259-51 33°39 or say R.A. = 259°:85, D. = + 33°°65 Hall considered the possible case of the sun and nearer stars revolving about a gigantic central body, and also of their revolving about their common centre of inertia. Using the parallaxes of a Centauri, and 61 Cygni, assumed as 0-936 and 0°"422 respec- tively, to determine the constants of his equations, and comparing the observed with his computed motions, he concluded that the centre lies towards Andromeda, instead of toward Hydra, and that the motion is about a common centre of inertia rather than about some gigantic mass. The place assigned for the centre was for 1850, RA=10°°4, D.= +27°°8 A second calculation gave ROA 92D) 26 The angular velocity of the sun about this centre was 0°”06612 per annum, 20 million years constituting the ‘Annus Magnus’ required to complete a revolution, whose radius was 31 million times the earth’s mean distance from the sun. The whole gravi- tative mass was estimated to be 78 million times that of the sun, although the distribution at ~ of a sidereal unit apart would indicate only 34 million. It should be added that in his discussion, Hall availed himself of existing knowledge of the radial velocities of stars, which, taken with parallax and proper motion, permitted of the absolute velocities being computed. THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 175 (70) Leo de Ball, 1877.—From the proper motions of 67 stars, Leo de Ball found for the epoch 1860, the values R.A. =269°O D. = + 23°°2 as defining the direction of the apex of the solar motion.’ (71) Preston, 1878.—In 1878, Tolver Preston raised the question whether the motion of the sun in space is not due to the reaction of the mechanical energy of the developed heat, this not being produced uniformly throughout its surface.” (72) Klinkerfues, 1878.—In 1878, Klinkerfues applied Bessel’s method of calculating and cartographically representing the poles of the proper motion in considering the fixed-star system, and the parallaxes and motions of its members.’ He concluded that the stars Vega, Capella, Sirius, and Fomalhaut have parallel motion and belong to one system, or at least move as if they did ; a con- clusion which Kobold points out loses its significance, if it be remembered that the computed radiation-point of the convergence, is very nearly identical with the antiapex of Madler’s solar-motion, adopted by Klinkerfues. The radiation point of the divergence was R.A. = 272°°5, D. = +32°4 while Madler’s direction, as before mentioned, was eA. = 261-76 Di= + 39-9. (73) Masxwell-Hall, 1875.—Further data being now to hand in regard to the parallaxes and radial velocities of about 23 stars, their motions were investigated with reference to Maxwell-Hall’s hypothesis: the results on the whole appeared to confirm the theory of the earlier paper.* (74) Clerk-Maxwell, 1879.—In a letter to Mr. Todd of the Washington N.A. Office, dated 19th March, 1879, Clerk-Maxwell remarked that if the sun be moving through the ether, the time _ 1 Untersuchungen uber die eigene Bewegung des Sonnensystems.— Inaugural-dissertation, Bonn, 1877. ? A consideration regarding the proper motion of the sun in space.— Phil. Mag., Vol. vi., Ser. 5, pp. 398-394, 1878. 3 Ueber Fixstern-Systeme, Parallaxen und Bewegungen.—Verdffent- lichen der k. Sternwarte zu Géttingen, pp. 29 - 53, 1878. * Monthly Not. Roy. Astr. Soc., Vol. xxxtx., pp. 126-133, 1878. 176 G. H. KNIBBS. occupied by the light in passing from a planet as Jupiter to the earth, ought to vary as the planet moves through different signs of the zodiac. Hence he thought it might be possible to at least detect the existence of the motion in this way.1 (75) Lagrange, C., 1880.—Lagrange in 1880 contributed an article to “Ciel et Terre,” on the apex of the solar motion through space.” ® (75a) Schénfeld, 1852.—In 1882, Schonfeld introduced into the discussion of the sun’s motion in space a term representing a possible rotation in the plane of the Milky-Way.’ [Not having access to the volume of the quarterly journal of the Astronomische Gesellschaft containing his treatise, 1am unable to more fully refer to it. | (76) Rancken, 1882.—Rancken of Brahestad, Finland,‘ in 1882 adopting Gylden’s hypothesis as to the parallax of the stars,’ and employing Argelander’s proper motions of 250 stars,° and Leo de Ball’s proper motions of 80 southern stars,’ computed the direction and quantity of the solar motion from the P. Ms. in right ascension, and in declination, considered independently. Denoting for brevity’s sake, the computation from the former by R.A’, and from the latter by R.A. and D.; and putting E for the annual motion in terms of the mean distance of the earth from the sun ; he obtained the results hereunder :— From Argelander’s P.Ms.— R.A’. =285°0; RA 846, WD, From de Ball’s P.Ms.— R.A’. = 273°°8; R.A. = 244°1, D.= +17°5, E= 4:59 + 37°5, H=10°85 1 Proc. Roy. Soc., Lond., Vol. xxx., pp. 108-110, 1879. 2 Le point fixe, 1., p. 217, 1880. 3 Vierteljahrsschrift d. Astr. Ges., Bd. xvi1., pp. 256 et seq., 1882. * Ueber die Higenbewegung der Fixsterne.—Astr. Nach. Bd. cIv., pp. 149 — 156, 1882. § Vierteljahrsschrift der Astron. Gesell., Bd. x11., Heft 4, Gyldén’s hypothesis makes the parallax a function both of magnitude and proper- motion. 6 Bonner Beobachtungen, Bd. vit. 7Inaugural-dissertation, 1877. THE SUN'S MOTION IN SPACE. WS According to Gyldén’s hypothesis a star with large proper motion has also large parallax. Recalculating with the same material by dividing one side of the fundamental equations, by the parallax, instead of multiplying it into the other side, the normal equations are changed, and the results then became :— From Argelander’s P.Ms.— R.A. — 275°°3; R.A:=288"°5, D. = + 41-0, H=10°6 From de Ball’s P.Ms.— R.A’. = 281°0; R.A. = 240°4, D.= +11°9, E= 7:83 The inconsistency of these results, which seem to indicate that the proper motions cannot be explained on the hypothesis of generally indiscriminate motion, suggested a further analysis, having regard to the fact that several astronomers have suspected a general drift of the stars in a direction parallel to the plane of the Milky Way. A selection was made of 106 stars, whose galactic latitude lay between the limits + 30°, and whose yearly component of proper motion in galactic latitude did not exceed 0:"25. The suitable investigation of the solar motion from these gave, eee 04 wd) eee = 2, D5 ol: 9, WH 9°79 Rancken concluded that a more accurate and thorough investi- gation of the question of general motion parallel to the plane of the Milky Way was essential in reaching truer views concerning the proper motions of the stars. : (77) Plummer, 1883.—In Galloway’s discussion of the direction of the solar motion from southern stars, the assumption of the point to be determined so affects the result that, whatever the data, there can be derived only a relatively small correction. Owing to this fact, and to the circumstance that more exact material had become available through the publication of Stone’s catalogue,' _ Plummer in 1883,’ undertook the investigation from Galloway’s stars. The method of calculation was Airy’s, the magnitudes ' The Cape Catalogue, 1880. 7 Mem. Roy. Astr. Soc., Vol. XLVII., pp. 327 - 352, 1883. L—Nov. 7, 1900 178 G. H. KNIBBS. ; adopted, Gould’s in the Uranometria Argentina; and the stellar parallax that given by Peters.’ The result according to the two suppositions previously referred to, the latter of which was the probable one, was, when Galloway’s stars only were used :— (a) R.A.=276-0, D.= +27, R.=1-470 (0) 262°7, —1°5, 0-724 | R denoting as previously the angular value of the motion viewed from a first magnitude star. The differences from the positions computed by Galloway himself were so remarkable, that a further investigation was undertaken in which all the Cape catalogue stars whose proper motions were greater than 0:°"1 annually were included. The results from the 274 available stars were (a) R.A. =281°3, D.= +25°8, R.=0-772 (b) 270:1, 20°3, 1-690 The deviation from other results being still great, and an examination of the influence of certain stars shewing that four greatly affect the result, suggested the adoption of a change in the manner of grouping them. Relying upon the results of Safford’s discussion, which apparently shewed that stellar distances should be approximately in the inverse ratio of the proper motions, a reinvestigation was undertaken on the assumption that the distances of the stars were as shewn in the following table :— “Mt “t Mt “ Mt “ “ Proper Motion 34+ 2-1 1:0-8 ‘8-6 -6--4-4--3 3-1 -T- Distance ...4 | J:67 2°14 3 5 10) eas No. of Stars... 7 16 7 9° 16 72 “ioe The computation now gave for the place of the point to which the solar motion was directed, and for the quantity of the motion R.A. = 276°1, D, = +26°5, R.=0°926 A close criticism of the general result convinced Plummer that Safford’s doctrine as to the relation of distance and proper motion had some degree of probability. On the other hand there did not appear to be any decisive evidence of change of distance with 3 Struve’s Etudes d’Astronomie stellaire, p. 106. THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 179 magnitude; in fact excepting first magnitude stars, the evidence pointed to the other way, since putting R’ to denote the solar motion seen from the mean distance of each magnitude the results were as follows, viz.:— Magnitude 1 2 3 4 5 6 il Motion R’ 0-458 0-108 0-077 0-101 0-089 0-056 0-077 (78) Kovesligethy, 1884.—Kovesligethy stated, writing from O’Gyalla Observatory in March, 1886,' that at the beginning of the year 1883, he endeavoured, from the values of star-velocities in the line of sight (published in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society),* to determine the quantity and direction of the sun’s motion. The result, from about 70 stars, for 1881-0 was R.A. = 261°°0, D.= + 35°1, V. =8°6 German geog. miles per sec. Fourteen stars approximately at right-angles to the path gave a residual velocity of 1 geog. mile per second, instead of zero, which supported fairly well the deduction of direction. These results were published in an Hungarian paper. (Haza és Kilfold) Ist December, 1884. (79) Folie, 1884.—In August 1884, Folie pointed out the significance of the solar motion in regard to what he denominated “systematic aberration,”’ an aberration depending upon the relation of the velocity of translation of the solar system to the velocity of light, and he remarked that, although it had been so far neglected in determinations of velocity of translation, it is destined nevertheless to play an important réle in future astronomy. Folie also pointed out that there is a further aberration which may be called “objective aberration,” depending upon the velocity of the body emitting luminous rays to the velocity of their transmission through the ether.* 1 Bestimmung der Bewegung des Sonnensystems durch Spectral- Messungen.—Astr. Nach., Bd. cxiv., pp. 327-328, 1886. 2 Monthly Not. RK. A. Soc., Nos. 32, 36, 37, 38, 41. * Un chapitre inédit d’astronomie sphérique.—Astr. Nach. 2607, Bd. CIX., pp. 225 — 238, * See Houzeau, Astr. Nachr. No. 496 et 498, 1844; Herschel, Ibid., No. 520, 1845; Villarceau, C. R., t. Lxxv., 1872, Lxxx1., 1875; C. des Temps, 1878. 180 G. H. KNIBBS. (80) Bischof, 1884.—In 1884 Bischof also investigated the proper motion of the solar system.’ From 480 stars, he found for the codrdinates of the solar-apex for the epoch 1855 R.A. = 285°°2, D.= + 48°5 Applying Airy’s method, however, the result was R.A. = 290°°8, D. = + 43°°5 (81) Homann, 1585.—Three extensive series of measurements of the radial velocities of the stars, made respectively at Greenwich, by Huggins, and by Seabroke, admitted of a determination of the solar motion from those data alone. This was undertaken by Homann in December 1885.” He found for the three series :— i. R.A. =320°1, D.= +41°2, V.=39°'3 kilometres itt. 309°5, + 69:7, 48°5 sf ili. 2788, + 13°6, 24°5 - 3 These results though not in perfect accord, yet shew sufficient to indicate that much isto be expected of the application of the method. (82) Ubaghs, 1886.—In February 1886, Ubaghs submitted a paper on the determination of the proper motion of our system, to the Royal Academy of Sciences of Brussels.’ Comparing the results of Bradley’s. catalogue with those of the Fundamental Catalogues of the Astronomische Gesellschaft and with the B.A.C. he obtained the following results for the epoch 1810? Mag. No. Stars R.A. D. R' 7 E. 9 56 =. 258°2 4. 30°71 057” =. 65 088 3 145 259-1 25:9 045 ‘40-112 4 263 265-2 26-3 —--028 2] 112 4644 262-4 26-6 1 Untersuchungen iiber die Eigenbewegung des Sonnensystems—Bonn 1884. e 2 Beitrige zur Untersuchung der Sternbewegungen und der Lichtbe- wegung durch Spectralmessungen—Inaugura!-Dissertation, Berlin 1885. Also :—Bestimmung der Bewegung des Sonnensystems durch Spectral- Messungen.—Astr. Nach., Bd. cxiv., pp. 25-26, 1886. Also The Observatory Volk ix. p) Li: 3 Détermination de la direction et de la vitesse du transport du systéme solaire dans l’espace. lme partie— Bull. l Acad. roy. Bruxelles 3° Sér., t. x1. pp. 67, 186 — 139, 1886; paper printed also in the Mémoires de 1|’Acad., t. XLVII., 1886. * Quoted by L. Struve.—Mém. Acad. St. Pétersh., 7me Série, t. xxxv. THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 18] R’ denoting the annual motion at the mean distance of stars of the corresponding magnitude, z the parallax agreeing with the magnitude according to Pickering, and E. the absolute annual motion in terms of the mean radius of the earth’s orbit about the sun. The values of E are singularly small compared with other estimates. (83) folie, 1686.—In April 1886, Folie, referring again to his previous communication to the Astronomische Nachrichten, quotes Ubagh’s results above given." Beyond quotation and brief com- ment nothing fresh is indicated. (84) Ludwig Struve, 1887."—Struve, comparing recent Pulkova catalogues with Bradley’s observations reduced by Auwers, obtained 2,509 stars from which the constant of precession and the apex of the solar motion could be determined. Putting R.A’. for the result determined from the P.M. in right ascension only, Struve found for the year 1805 Pee 2120 — 270° 1; Di — +363 His final deduction was ! [Ble == Oy ID) to Yl) (85) Folie, 1888.—In a theoretical paper,’ discussing a question raised by Battermann,* Folie points out, that if, as is required by rigour, the aberration and systematic parallax are introduced in any expression for the variation of the mean coordinates of a star’s positions at intervals of time widely separated, the parallax of the star and the velocity of the solar system may be deduced from the variations. (86) Kobold, 1890.—In 1890 Kobold commenced his elaborate investigations on the motions obtaining among the members of the * Note sur le mouvement du systéme solaire.—Astr. Nach., Bd. cxiv.> pp. 355 — 356. ; ? Bestimmung der Constante der Praecession und der eigenen Bewegung des pe del’ Acad. St. Pétersbourg, 7me Série, t. XXXvV., 3, 1887. * Sur la détermination de la vitesse systématique et de la parallaxe des toiles, etc.—Astr. Nach. Bd. cx1x., pp. 343 — 346. *See Astr. Nach., Bd. cxvitt., pp. 369-372. Folie in reply, Ibid., Bd. cx1x., pp. 185-186; Battermann’s rejoinder, Ibid., Bd. cx1x., pp. 297 - 300. 182 G. H. KNIBBS. stellar system.’ He recognised the necessity of guarding against any preponderating influence of stars in particular parts of the heavens forming groups subject to a common drift, such as had been suspected by Michell,” and definitely revealed by the investi- gations of Proctor,’ Huggins,* Safford,’ and others. This undue influence can be avoided by grouping the stars in different regions, and using the mean proper motion of the region. At the date when the investigation was undertaken the positions and proper motions of 622 stars of the two catalogues of the Astronomische Gesellschaft were available. The general result of previous work was stated to be R.A. = 266°7, D.= +31°°0. Forming 20 groups arranged in order of their proper motions, it was found that the distance from the adopted pole could be con- nected with the proper motion itself by the equation ° 0 1 ° I —0°°49 + 2°183 PM —0-°005 (P.M? —P.M. denoting the proper motion. Dividing the stars into six classes according to the following scheme, the various results for the place of the parallactic pole shewn in the following table were obtained :— Class P.M. Weight. R.A. D. I > “547 1 259-4 —0-5 al II. -292t0 547 3tol 2703 +26 Mean MIT. 198 292 $ 4 2669 -13\ IV. 150 198 2 4 2629 441/7""""92 Sage V. 120 150 2 4 267-7 me VI. +100 120 4 4 2693 +42: These results were to be regarded as provisional merely. The epoch for the determination of the proper motions was 1755 - ' Ueber die Bewegungen im Fixsternsysteme.—Astr. Nach., Bd. cxxv., pp- 65 - 72. 2 See Phil. Trans., 1783, pp. 276 — 277. 3 Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond.. Vol. xvi11., pp. 169 —- 171, 1869. * Brit. Assoc. Reports, Sect. 1873, pp. 34-35, and Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. Vol. xx11., pp. 251 — 254. > Monthly Not. Roy. Astr. Soc., Vol. xxxvitl., pp. 295 — 297, 1878. THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 183 1865, and the result is for the mean of those dates, viz., for the 1810-0. (87) Stwmpe, 1890.—In 1890 Stumpe undertook an investiga- tion of the motion of the solar system having regard to the possibility of some general law in the motus peculiaris of fixed stars, existing.’ All stars used in the investigation were reduced by Struve’s Precession-constant to the equinox of 1855-0, the right ascension upon the Fundamental system of Newcomb, the declina- tions on Boss’s system. The material for the determination was fully discussed and carefully corrected. Drawing attention to the fact that in previous determinations it has always been assumed that the motus peculiaris’ of the stars is subject to no regular law —such as was contemplated in J. Herschel’s hypothesis of a rotation in the plane of the Galaxy—Stumpe introduced into his equations, for the motion of the solar system, which in other respects were identical with Airy’s, terms denoting the galacto- centric right ascension, declination, and distance of the sun, and the right ascension of the ascending node of the Milky-way and the inclination of its plane and the equator. The stars were divided into four groups according to the magnitude of the proper motions, with the result shewn in the following table : Group. P.M. No.ofStars. R.A. D. R. L 016t00°32 551 987-4 +42°0 0-140 Il 0°32 064 340 279-7 40:5 0-295 Ill 064 1:28 105 9879 321 0-608 IV, 1:28°¢uward 5g 285-2 - 30-4 2-057 Total ] 05 4 Mean 985 ‘0 36° y) or about 39° taking account of number of stars. R denoting the ratio of the annual motion to the mean distance of the group. Thus it would appear that the distance of the stars is in general reciprocally proportional to their proper motion. * Untersuchungen tiber die Bewegung des Sonnensystems.—Astr. Nach. Bd. cxxv., pp. 385 - 426, 1890. See also The Observatory, Vol. xrv., pp. 68-69. _* The motus peculiaris is the absolute motion of the star itself, while the ‘ proper motion’ is the apparent motion arising from the combined effect of the motus peculiaris of the star, and that of the solar system. 184 G. H. KNIBBS. There was no definite indication of a general rotation, such as was symbolically represented in the form of the equations of motion. (88) Boss, 1890.— Using stars in the Albany zone, D.=0-°50' to 5°10’, Boss in 1890 deduced the following results by adopting Airy’s method :' Series. S205 Mag. R.A. D. R. 1 1385 66 “2804 8498 01238 2 144 8:6 285-7 45'1 0:1373 Both 279% 7:6 283°3 44-1? 01309 53 253 CY Ase 51:5 Quoting Struve’s, and Bischof’s, and pointing out that the general result was about R.A. = 287° and D.= + 47° Boss seemed to think that the most probable position was R.A. = 280°, D.= + 40° He pointed out that Struve’s resuit reduced on the system of the American Ephemeris would change its declination from +27°°3 to +37°7. (89) Hecker, 1891.— Hecker in 1891 by developing the observed motion of a star as a function of its position and distance, and by so determining the point that the motion in both codrdinates vanishes, obtained the values :° Division I, R.A. =272°5, D.= + 13°°8 Pee? 267°8 4°7 or combining the results - R.A. =270°0, D.+9°°9. (90) Monck, 1892.—Pointing out that although there is a con- siderable amount of agreement, in the determinations of the solar motion in space, the discrepancies are such as to indicate the pre- carious nature, and indeed even the inadmissibility of some of the + A determination of the Solar Motion.—Astr. Journ., Vol. 1x., pp. 161 — 165, 1890. See also, The Observatory, Vol. x111., pp. 217, 218. * Newcomb corrects this afterwards to 42°°9. * Ueber die Darstellung der Higenbewegungen der Fixsterne und die Bewegung des Sonnensystems.—Miinchen, 1891. THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 185 underlying assumptions, a point discussed by him at some length, Monck abandoned entirely all classification in respect of magni- tude, and all assumptions with regard to distance." Employing Dunkin’s (i.¢e., Main’s) 1,167 stars, he tabulated the numbers in each hour of R.A. shewing increasing, and also those shewing diminishing N.P.D. The great preponderance of stars with increasing north polar distances, indicated that the apex of solar- motion was in the northern hemisphere, and that the north declin- ation was considerable, The apex seemed to lie between R.A. = 16 hrs. and R.A.=21 hrs., and the declination to be about + 45° A second table was then formed, giving similarly the numbers of stars with increasing and also with diminishing right ascensions. This table shewed the R.A. of the apex to lie between 18 hrs. and 19 hrs. Monck concluded further that this method would also serve to shew the rate of our progression, provided we assume that the stars are moving indifferently in every direction. He roughly estimated the velocity to be twenty miles per second, subject to an uncertainty of several miles. His rough values are R.A. = 280°, D.= + 45°, V.=20 miles per second. Monck thinks that the proper motions of not less than 10,000 stars are requisite for determining the apex ‘within 2.or 3 degrees,’ or the sun’s velocity ‘without a considerable percentage of error.’ The paper contains no rigorous mathematical statement of the fundamental assumptions, and the attempt at a quantitative estimate is admittedly ‘rough’ only. (91) Seeliger, 1892, (March).—Seeliger in his public address at the Munich Academy of Sciences, on the occasion of the 133rd anniversary of its foundation,” makes some important observations as to correct conceptions of the problem of solar motion, pointing out that it is ‘very frequently, perhaps most frequently miscon- ceived,’’ as was established by L. Lange.’ *I. The Sun’s Motion in Space, I. and IIJ.—Publications of the Astr. Soc. of the Pacific, Vol. x1v., No. 22, pp. 70-77, 1892. * Ueber allgemeine Probleme der Mechanik des Himmels, pp. 1 - 29, Miinchen, 1892. * Loe. cit., p. 29. * Die geschichtliche Entwickelung des Bewegungshegriffes, etc., Leipzig, 1886. 186 G. H. KNIBBS. (92) Ristenpart, 1892.—Ristenpart compared the zones of Bessel with Becker’s (Berlin) northern zones,’ the interval being about a half century, in connection with an elaborate investigation of the constant of precession, and of the solar motion. Ristenpart concluded that the Galaxy consists of two intersecting planes, the coérdinates of the principal and secondary poles, in 1850 being 2? Pole of Primary plane of Galaxy R.A.=196°6, D.= +18°7 5, secondary i, LEST 55°'8 While Houzeau gave as the result 192-2, 27°5 In developing his equations he took account of Schonfeld’s hypothesis of a rotation in the plane of the Milky-Way. Dividing the stars into four classes as follows, and abandoning the hypothesis of a rotation he obtained the results :— Class; 32.2 P.M. R.A. D. T. 85 over @:251° 302-2 4a TE 221 over 0°158 286°3 29 8 IIT, 148 under 0:158 294:7 24°8 IV. 4,565 over 01 294°3 28:2 A second calculation, including that hypothesis gave— Class I. R.A. 289°9 D.+33°3 Di. 280°3 33°9 ITI. 267°3 28:4 IV. 276°5 27-0 While a third, with a modification of the hypothesis, gave— Class I. R.A. 290°6 344 II. 281°6 36°9 IE. 266°7 33:3 IV. 28°23 41:2 The results shew that when a term () depending on the rotation is introduced R.A. = 284°, D.= +30° but if neglected, R.A. = 261%, Di= 439" 1 Untersuchungen iiber die Constante der Praecession und die Beweg- ung der Sonne im Fixsternsysteme.—Veroff. d. Grossh. Sternw. zu Karlsruhe, Heft. 1v., pp. 197 — 288, 1892. 7? Ibid. p. 258. ; THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 187 and when the hypothesis of a place for the centre of inertia is introduced from Class IV., the one determination alone is allow- ee. R.A. = 974°2, D-= +19°5 Referring to a modification of Bischof’s solution, Ristenpart pointed out that the result is changed from R.A. =290°8, D. = +43°5 to | 290°5 42°8 practically the same result. The epoch throughout is 1850. On the basis of Gyldén’s hypothesis the velocity is about V.=25°6 kilometres per second, the simple mean of Homann’s results is 28°8 kilometres. Risten- part considered further the relation of the solar motion to the stellar motus peculiaris. He shewed that the P.M. affords a far better criterion of distance than magnitude does. From his analysis it appeared further that the product of the mean P.M. and distance of any class of stars continually increases with increase of distance from the sun: and that the linear motus peculiaris is a function of the stars position in space. The following distance relations are given by Ristenpart :— Magnitudes if 2 3. fw 5 6 7 8 9 Pickering °794 1°258 1:994 3:160 5:006 7:929 Bonner Durch- ,, : ; ; : ; ; ; musterung 1:000 1:531 2°343 3°583 5°473 8:345 12°690 19-231 28°967 (93) Porter, 1892 (Oct.)—Employing Schénfeld’s method’ and an adaptation of his formule, Porter deduced the solar motion from the 1,340 proper motions given in No. 12 of the publications of the Cincinnati Observatory.” He divided these according to their magnitude into four groups, and obtained the results shewn hereunder :— Grou. P.M. % RA. Dd. ate, i 108 Sib e259, 453-77 0-16 II. 03-06 533 280°7 40-1 0°30 III. 06-1:2 142 285-2 34:0 0°55 me BV Ve 0 277-0 34:9 1:66 | *Vierteljahrsschrift Astr. Gesell. Bd. xviz., p. 256. ? Astr. Journ., Vol. x11., pp. 91-93, 1892. Also The Observatory, Vol. XVI., p. 456, 1892. 188 G. H. KNIBBS. R. denotes the motion as seen from the mean distance of the group. It will be noticed that these results appear to confirm the assumption that the P.M. is an index of a star’s distance, since the proportionality between it and the annual solar motion is quite remarkable. (94) Vogel and Kempf, 1-92.—The motion of a number of stars in the line of sight had been determined by Vogel at the astro- physical observatory at Potsdam, spectrographically.' Of these, 45 out of 51 observed had a probable error of not more than +0°25 Ger. geog. miles. At the suggestion of Vogel, Kempf undertook the investigation of the sun’s motion.” In the first calculation it was assumed that the influence of the proper motions of the stars would disappear in the mean, and that the motions were indepen- dent. This assumption gave the result | R.A. = 206.°1, D. = + 45:9, V.=2°5 German geog. miles which it was alleged lay wholly outside the limit of previguy determinations. A second calculation in which different weights were assigned, and the stars were grouped in certain instances gave R.A. = 159°7, D. = +50°0, V.=1:75 German geog. miles Finally accepting the values of earlier observations, viz., R.A. 266°7, D.+31°0? a computation was made of the velocity alone, giving V. = 1:66 German geog. miles. The provisional character of the result, since it depends upon a few stars of uncertain distance, is fully admitted. | (95) Kapteyn, 1893 (Jan. )—In 1893 Kapteyn commenced the publication of his researches on the distribution of the stars in space, using the Draper catalogue, and taking account of their 1 Publicationen des Astrophysik. Observ., Bd. vir., Theil 1, 1892. ? Versuch einer Ableitung der Bewegung des Sonnensystems aus den Potsdamer spectrographischen Beobachtumecy, H.C. Vogel.—Astr. Nach, Bd. cxxxit., p. 81, 1893. 3 Best. d. Constant d. Praecess., etc.— Mém. de I’ Acad. St. Pétersbourg Tme Sér., t. XXXv. THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 189 spectral type.’ In all there were 2,357 stars, of which 1,189 belonged to the first, 1,106 to the second, and 62 to the third spectral type ; these types were considered because any general theory of distance as related to magnitude is obviously imperfect unless the character of the emitted light is regarded. The general result of Kapteyn’s researches, in which Ludwig Struve’s position of the apex of solar motion was accepted for the purpose of the reductions, is given hereinafter, see Kapteyn 1898. These values were R.A. = 2767, D.= +34 for the epoch 1865. (96) Kobold, 1893.—Kobold opened his 1893 treatise? with a short discussion on the essential nature of the methods previously adopted for determining the sun’s path in space. Stating that. these may be divided into two species, viz., those that avoid all hypotheses in computing the direction of motion, and those that are deduced on some definite hypothesis, Argelander’s and Bessel’s methods belonging to the one, and Airy’s and Schénfeld’s to the other. Argelander so determined the direction that the sum of the squares of the differences of direction between the observed and the computed parallactic motion should be a mini- mum. Bessel computed the poles of the observed proper motions, and determined the direction of the solar motion as the pole of a great circle so situated, that the pole of the proper motions should approximate as near to its pole as possible. Airy determined the direction and magnitude of the motion together, and was forced to adopt an assumption as to relative distances of the stars, so as to suitably combine his data. Finally Schonfeld introduced by way of explanation of the differences between the deduced paral- lactic motion and the observed proper motion, the notion of rotation parallel to the plane of the Milky-Way. As already 1 Over de verdeeling van de sterren in de ruimte. Verslagen der Afd. Natuurk. kon. Akad. v. Wetenschappen, 28 Jan. 1898, pp. 125-140. See also The Observatory, Vol. xvi., p. 275, 1893. 2 Ueber die Bestimmung der eigenen Bewegung des Sonnensystems— Astr. Nach. Bd. cxxxi1., pp. 305 — 326, 1893. 190 G. H. KNIBBS. stated, Bessel had found from 71 stars that the poles of proper motion were so distributed over the spherical surface that the determination of a parallactic equator seemed hopeless. From the proper motions of 3,268 stars of the Auwers-Bradley catalogue 1,374 poles whose uncertainty of position did not exceed 10:75 were accepted and divided into six classes. The distribution of these on the celestial spherical surface was analysed by dividing it into trapeziums and triangles at every 10° by hour and declina- tions circles, and observing the distribution thereon. Kobold concluded that by this analysis, it is certainly demonstrated that the Besselian method conducts to an apex, for the solar motion, not sensibly different from R.A. = 266°1, D.= +0°4 as deduced in his earlier essay from 622 stars, He discussed the reason why different methods should lead to results so much at variance ; for example, Argelander’s method leads to the result R.A. =26078,, De= +3153 but Bessel’s to R.A. =261°4, D.= —6°°0, the cause of difference he concluded is not to be sought in the difference of data but in the treatment thereof. The essential feature of Argelander’s method is that it supposes the stellar proper motions to be analogous to errors of observation. An examination shews most obviously, that the “law of error” is not applicable, and therefore its application can lead only to false results. Kobold pointed out that the magnitude of the sun’s motion is comparable to that of the stars, and discussed the cases where it is supposed very great, or on the other hand negligible in relation thereto. He stated that Airy made the same assump- tion as Argelander, modified only by the addition that the distance of the stars is reciprocally proportional to their proper motion. Airy’s solution really depended for the element of distance on magnitude.’ The fuller discussion of the result by Argelander’s: method and by Bessel’s seemed to prove that the latter is altogether preferable. | wae Monthly Not. Roy. Astr. Soc., Vol. x1x., p. 178. THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 191 (97) Harzer, 1893.—In 1893 Harzer criticised the mathematical features of Kobold’s investigation last mentioned, and defined the analytic conditions which should, in his opinion, determine Kobold’s solution." (98) Risteen, 1893 (June )—Risteen, using Vogel’s list of 51 stars with the exception of 9 which he thought ought, for various reasons, to be excluded as likely to vitiate the result, deduced from the remaining 42 stars? R.A. = 218°0, D. = + 45°0, V. = 10-9 English statute miles persec. (99) Kobold, 1894.—On 4th June 1894, an investigation by Kobold of the proper motions of the Auwers-Bradley Catalogue, according to the Besselian method, was received by the Imperial Leopold-Caroline German Academy of Scientific Investigators, and published in 1895.2 This contains the places of the 3,268 stars previously mentioned for the epoch 1810-0, and their proper motions; the latter being determined for the interval 1755 — 1865, the mean of which is the epoch referred to. From the 3,268 stars 1,408 are selected, the poles of whose motion do not shew a greater uncertainty of direction than 10°5. Remarking that the relation of the weights in different instances will be as follows :— ae oor Oa ORs Gus (ee Men Tes hoes Weight ... ee sts EO a2 NO 34-6 100-0) 316-2 Kobold divided these stars into six classes, the limits of uncer- tainty being as hereinafter shewn. The 1,408 stars are also divided into six series, following the scale of the magnitudes of the proper motions, viz., Series ce At 155 C D E Fr Proper motion <0°l 0°1—0'2 0°2—0'4 0°4-0°8 0-8—1°6 > 1°6 No.of Stars... 618 474 210 81 17 8 * Bemerkung zu Herrn Kobold’s Aufsatz ‘* Ueber die Bestimmung der eigenen Bewegung des Sonnensystems.”—Astr. Nach., Bd. cxxxill1., pp. 79 - 82, 1893. 2 Astr. Journ. Vol. xu11., pp. 74-75, 18938, also The Observatory, Vol. xv1., p- 274, 1893. * Untersuchung der Higenbewegungen des Auwers-Bradley-Catalogs nach der Bessel’schen Methode.—Nova Acta d. k. Leop. Carol. Deutsch. Akad. d. Naturforscher, Bd. ux1v., No. 5, pp. 215 — 368, 1895. 192 G. H. KNIBBS. A count was then made of the distribution of the poles of proper motion over the celestial sphere, and after shewing that the approximate mean error is sensibly identical for each class, from which it appears that the influence of the chance errors of observation are unrecognisable, Kobold deduced the codrdinates of the sun’s motion from the stars in each class as follows: — Class Stars. e(d) R.A. 1D I. 24 <0°°6 264°4 +12°°0 Epoch 1810-0 © II. 43 0:7 tol--0) 26455 - 3'5 TIT... LOL, A ees 262 —07 DV. = 210) 19° 3-2" 265-0 — 4:7 Wee as Se 4 Ot Bort —1-4 Vi 1636 9529) 0: Sos —4-3 Total 1,400 Mean result 266°6 -— 3:0 Treating the whole of the equations the result was Reap 20670) oi Soa practically identical with the mean result as shewn. Kobold discussed this with respect to the quantity of the solar P.M., from which it appears that it is considerably smaller for the declination — 3° than for + 31°, the former assumption giving V =0°'61 German miles per sec., while the latter gives 1:23. He moreover deduced the quantity of the sun’s motion in relation to the members of two series of stars of which the parallaxes are known, and also the velocity in the line of sight from spectroscopic observations. The first series contains 11 stars, the second 18. The general result is that the evidence points to the apex being very near the celestial equator rather than about 30° away. (100) Gyldén, 1894 (Aug.)—The relations of magnitude and proper motion to parallax are obvicusly important in connection with the analysis of the sun’s motion. An attempt was made by Gyldén in 1894 by discussing stars of known parallax with various proper motions and magnitudes to define those relations quantita- THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 193 tively! The results have been subsequently considered in dis- cussions of the solar motion. (101) Kobold, 1895 (Jan.)—In continuation really of his pre- vious investigations, Kobold contributed to the Astronomische Nachrichten in 1895, a paper on the relation between the different methods of investigating the motion of the solar system.” His general equations contain terms representing the components of absolute motion, both of the sun and of the stars, that is to say the so-called motus peculiaris of both are taken into consideration. He points out that if Airy’s method is applied to Vogel’s 51 stars the result is R.A. = 247°0, D.= +47°9, R.=0°"191 instead of 206°1 45°9 R being the motion at the mean distance of the 51 stars, but points out that the weight of a determination based upon so incon- siderable a number of stars is small. The mathematical theory of the difference between the methods is fully exhibited. (102) Kobold, 1895 (Mar.)—Kobold discussed the relation of the Argelander and Airy to the Besselian method of investigating the solar motion, in March 1895.> He states (a) that Argelander’s and Airy’s methods should give the same point for the sun’s apex of motion, the fundamental supposition being that the motus peculiaris perpendicular to the line of sight will mutually cancel one another. The apex points lie on both sides of R.A. 275° D.+30° ina narrow zone parallel to the Milky Way: it is not possible that the true apex lies within this region. (6) The method dependent upon motion in the line of sight supposes that the motus peculiaris in that direction vanishes, and will give a result in agreement neither with the method of Argelander nor * Ueber die mittleren Parallaxen von Sternen verschiedener Gréssen- classen und verschiedener scheinbaren Bewegungen—Astr. Nach. Bd. CXXXVI., pp. 289 — 300. 2 Ueber die Beziehungen verschiedener Methoden zur Untersuchung der Bewegung des Sonnensystems.—Astr. Nach. Bd. cxxxvil., pp. 343 - 348, 1895. 7 Bemerkungen zur Bessel’schen Methode der Untersuchung der Higenbewegung.—Astr. Nach. Bd. cxxxvit., pp. 389 — 398, 1895. M—WNov. 7, 1900. 194 G. H. KNIBBS. that of Bessel. (c) The Besselian method proceeds upon the assumption that positive and negative departures from the paral- lactic motion (due to the sun’s motion) are equally probable. This last method gives a point in the Milky Way R.A. = 266°°3) Dy eal and is of course the result previously given in 1894. (103) Kapteyn, 1895 (May ).—In 1895 Kapteyn continued the publication of his researches on the distribution of the velocities of the stars in space,’ taking account of their spectral type; the general result of such researches is given hereinafter, see Kapteyn 1898. (104) Anding, 1895.—In his Habilitationschrift of about 1895 Anding’ discussed the relations between the methods of Bessel and Argelander for the determination of the apex of the solar motion, having special reference to Kobold’s work. For Kobold’s reply see August 1895. (105) Kobold, 1895 (Aug.)—Kobold having examined the deductions of Anding, replied that the consequences reached by his mathematical analysis were inconsistent with the actually observed distribution of proper motions, and his hypothesis could not be established.’ A connection between the distribution of the stars and the position of the apex of motion was certainly most apparent, but it was admittedly difficult to distinguish whether the actual distribution was the consequence or the cause of the position of the apex-point. (106) Bompas, 1896 (Jan. and Mar.)—A brief discussion on a possible explanation of the difference between the positions of the apex of solar motion, when deduced from stars of different distances, 1 Over de verdeeling der kosmische snelheden.—Verslagen der Afd. Natuurk. Kon. Akad. v. Wetenschappen, D1 4, 25 Mei 1895 - Apr. 1896, ‘pp. 4-18. 2 Beziehungen zwischen den Methoden von Bessel und Argelander zur Bestimmung des Sonnenapex.—Habilitationschrift, 1895. 3 Ueber die Vertheilung der Sterne mit merklicher Higenbewegung.— _Astr. Nach., Bd. cxxxix., pp. 65 — 78. THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 195 was contributed by Bompas in January 1896." The results of Herschel, Argelander, Airy, Dunkin, L. Struve, Boss and O. Stumpe are given. Bompas thought it possible that there was a systematic drift of the Milky Way. Later, viz., in February, having noticed Homann’s determination from motion in the line of sight,® he thought this some confirmation of the view previously expressed. (107) Anding, 1896 (Jan. )—Anding,* stating that experience has shewn that the Besselian method of determining the direction of the sun’s motion gives a result, different from that of other methods, in which the same data are employed, submitted the question to an analysis, by which he endeavoured to shew that the reason of the disagreement was to be sought in the distribution of the proper motions.” | (1074) Kobold, 1896 (March/—Kobold replied to Anding’s argument three months later, pointing out that although the dis- tribution of proper motions does affect the result, that fact does not explain the systematic difference referred to. (108) Stwmpe, 1896 (April)—Pointing out that Airy’s method of determining the solar-motion in space is founded on the assump- tion that the true proper motions of the stars vanish in the mean, and that recent investigations have cast doubt upon that hypothesis, Stumpe returned again to the question of so deducing our path in space that the possibility of stellar proper motions being subject to some general trend—as for example in the plane of the Milky Way—shall be considered.® Stumpe consequently, having regard to Schonfeld’s assumption that the stars in general 1The Observatory, Vol. x1x., pp. 45-49, 1896. ? Ibid., p. March 1896. 3 Cited in Miss Clerke’s ‘“‘ System of the Stars,” p. 328. * Ueber den Einfluss der Sternvertheilung auf die Bestimmung des Sonnenapex nach der Bessel’schen Methode.—Astr. Nach. Bd. cxt., pp. 1-18, 1896. 5 Erwiderung auf Herrn Anding’s Aufsatz.—Astr. Nach. Bd. cxt., pp. 141 —- 144. 6 Beitrage zur Bestimmung des Sonnen-Apex.—Astr. Nach., Bd. cxt., pp. 177 - 192, 1896. A very imperfect account may also be found in The Observatory, Vol. x1x., p. 411, November 1896. 196 G. H. KNIBBS. move in excentric paths about the centre of the galaxy, introduced into his equations terms representing the galactocentric codrdinates of the stars’ positions, and investigated the evidence for such motion. Dividing the proper motions of 996 available stars into three groups according to their quantity, and into three classes accord- ing to the magnitudes of the stars—as shewn hereunder—the following results were obtained :— Group. P.M. We otoe SR oAS D. Mean P.M. Mean Mag. I. 016-032 551 2844 4415 0-229 6:34 II. 0:32-0:64 339 275:7 41:9 0:433 6-70 Ill. 0:64-1:28 106 287-7 33:1 0-850 6-38 Class. Magnitude. ei R.A. D. Mean P.M. Mean Mag. 1 76-< 284 2867 46:9 0-384 8-18 9. 56-75 473 290-7 37:5 0:°357 6-63 3. |- -— 55 - 938° 963-8 Sila) aan 412 These should give consistent results, if stellar distance be a function of the proper motion in the first series, or a function of the magnitude in the second series. Rearranging the stars in three divisions (a), (6), (c) by applying Gyldén’s hypothesis as to parallax, previously referred to(see 1894), the results then become :— Parallax. ~ “2027 “SAS D. Mean P.M. Mean Mag. Division. (a) 02-04 404 287-4 +450 0°233 7-12 (b) 04 06 348 282-2 43:5 -387 6-82 (ec) 206-12. 243 2802 3235 | uaa 4:89 These all shew a progression of the values for the apex-point, standing out the more clearly when stars of equal P.M. are classed according to brightness, or when stars of equal brightness are classed according to their P.M. Thus for example, the number also being thereby reduced as shewn, the results become— Class. Magnitude. §7.2' R.A. D. Pe ine, Oe Leama 1 762 2 139 305:3 560 0-237 817 0-026 9 56-75 265 28183. 383 0-231 658 034 9 1+ ~55 146 2762 30:9 0-919 | 4-/ Gnu that is to say the progression referred to is still more conspicuous. THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 197 The following comparison between the parallax and magnitudes according to different estimates, is given, viz., Magnitude 1 2 3 4. 4) 6 7 8 9 Struve 1:00 1°80 2°76 3°91 5:45 7:73 11°55 1740 — Ristenpart 1:00 1:53 2:34 3:58 5:47 8°34 12°69 19-23 28-97 Gyldén OO E-ol 177 8247 “solo 08 i-ol 11:21 16:99 Using Gyldén’s hypothesis, and accepting Houzeau’s values, R.A. 282°°25, I. = 62-°5, for the longitude of the ascending node, and inclination of the plane of the visible galaxy, the following results were obtained— Parallax. R.A. D. 0-02-04 292°2 +452°3 04--06 285°6 47°6 06—'12 280°5 33°7 These still shew the progression referred to, that is to say the hypothesis of motion in the plane of the Milky-Way leads to no better result. Treating again a limited number of stars of classes 1, 2 and 3, it was found that the results were — Class. Magnitude. $2.2 R.A. D. Mean P.M. Mean Mag. i 89 281'1 +22°9 0:240 8-13 meeesG 75 199 274-8 13-0 230 6-54 ek 55 106 272-4. 9-4 219 4:10 Finally, taking all stars of Groups I. and II., according to whether the angle of intersection of the P.M. with the meridians of the solar apex be less or greater 90°, the results become— Group, —32 R.A. D. Mean P.M. Mean Mag. Pe 394 2753 418-8 0-230 6-24 se 759 1143 499 6-70 Bea his6) eag7egu 145-8 3.99 661 II. 96 888 56-2 443 6-71 * It may be incidentally remarked that the mean result of these 394 stars weighted merely as the number of stars is R.A. = 275°°6, D. = +14°°3 which is almost identical with Group II. below, viz., R.A. = 275°9, D.= + 14:3. 198 G. H. KNIBBS. The middle value of the first two, viz., R.A. = 275°5, D. = + 14°°0 is exactly the mean between Kobold’s value — 3°, and Ludwig Struve’s + 31° according to Airy’s or Argelander’s method, and is moreover the most probable result. (109) Kobold, 1896 (July )—Among the proper motions of 499 southern stars, communicated to Kobold by Auwers, the uncer- tainty of the directions of 188 were within the previously indicated limits.'. These gave for the sun’s apex at 1880:0— R.A. =276: 0) Di ea Treating these in the same way as the previous stars, by dividing the celestial sphere into equal areas, the result was JWwey SAOE 3 D5 = Ol and combining these with previous results from Bradley’s stars. this result became R.A. = 266°°5,- D. = —3°°1. (110) Newcomb, 2896 (Dec./—In a paper ‘On the solar motion as a gauge of stellar distance,” Newcomb concluded from a discuss- ion on the relation between magnitude and proper motion, that the parallactic-displacement effect of the solar motion diminishes less rapidly with stars of fainter magnitude than has been supposed.’ His result shews solar motion toward a point R.A. = 297°, the quantity 0-’046 per annum from the mean distance of stars of 9th magnitude. lf we accept for the parallax the value 0-106 (2-3, see Kapteyn (122) hereinafter, this will make the velocity 28:9 miles per second. (111) Kobold, 1897 (April)—In April 1897 Kobold discussed the proper motions of 523 southern stars,* by way of extending his 1894 investigation previously referred to. These proper 1 Notiz betreffend die Bestimmung des Poles des parallaktischen Aequators.—Astr. Nach., Bd. cxul., pp. 421 - 422, 1896. 2 Astr. Journ., Vol. xvir., (No. 390) pp. 42-44, 1896. See also The: Observatory, Vol. xx., pp. 214-215, May 1897. % Loc. cit., p. 44. * Untersuchung der Higenbewegung von 523 siidlichen Sternen.—Astr. Nach. Bd. cxuiv., pp. 33 — 58, 1897. = 7 La ~ r bi a THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 199 motions were determined from observations, differently weighted, at five epochs, the series being,— I. Lacaille, Bradley: IJ. Piazzi: III. Johnson St. H., Cape 1840, Taylor, Henderson, Pond: IV. Cape 1880, Cordova 1875, Melbourne (i.) and (ii.), Greenwich: V. Recent observations at the Cape and Cordova. The catalogue gives the places for 1850-0. The celestial surface was divided by 2-hour circles, and by parallels of declination into 122 equal areas, and the general treatment was similar to that in the 1894 treatise. 213 poles whose un- certainty lay within the previously indicated limits gave for the pole of the parallactic equator the codrdinates— (213 stars) R.A. = 274°4, D.= +0°4 Combining this catalogue with the previous one, thus bringing the total number of stars employed up to 1579, the result became (1579 stars) ReA — 268-3, D.= = 2°99 Again, on dividing the whole sphere in 122 equal trapeziums, (2 calottes at the poles), the result obtained was BoA — 260027, ): — 0-02 the close agreement of both results shewing that the unequal division of the celestial sphere by the stars employed, had not materially influenced the result. Kobold also, employing the list of 11 stars referred to previously, viz., in his 1894 treatise, whose parallaxes and motions in the line of sight have been determined, found that they pointed to the result R.A. =240°1, D.= +3-°7, V. = 2°53 Ger. miles per sec. Derived from such limited data, this result could not of course be regarded as having much weight, but the close agreement with the general result is worthy of remark. The epoch for all the values is 1810-0. (112) Kobold, 1897 (April).—In a contribution concerning the value of the precession-constant,' Kobold assigned, for the epoch 1810-0, as approximate values of the parallactic pole R.A. 270°, * Ein Beitrag 2ur Kenntniss der Praecessionsconstante.—Astr. Nach., Bd. cxtiv., pp. 57-60, 1897. — D. 0°, and obtains from 115 stars of proper motion at least 0-4 R.A. = 266°, Di S07e The paper is important as bearing on the relation of the determin- 200 G. H. KNIBBS. ation of the precession-constant to the general discussion of proper motions. (113) Kapteyn, 1897 (May )—Kapteyn continued his discussion of the velocities of stars in space, reviewing the possibility of some general trend in the motus peculiares of the stars.’ His results are more fully referred to hereinafter. See 1898. (114) Kobold, 1897 (July)—In continuation of his previous investigations, Kobold? discussed in July 1897, the distribution of the motus peculiares of the stars upon the assumption of two apices for the solar motion, viz. (a) R.A. =268°25, D.= +31°°0, Argelancerian solution (d) 268°°25, — 3°°0, Besselian solution and further for the apex (c) RAS — 268-25, 2D: Putting +10°°5 Il M =As cos (f - w); N =As sin (¢ — y) in which As, ¢, and y are respectively the observed proper motion, its direction, and y the direction from the antiapex; and also q to denote the solar motion, and Ap the correction to the precession constant, Kobold found for these points the following results, viz.: Argelanderian Point. Besselian Point. Point c. Ap -0:0289 — 0-0277 Mean N~ + 0:0934 + 0:0847 No. of + Ns 505 404 456 No. of — Ns 388 499 447 He further calculated, from the equation for M, the values of m/p, or one of the angular components of the motus peculiaris of each star, drawn perpendicular to the great circle from the antiapex. The distribution of the errors shewed that if, in the determination + Verdeeling der kosmische snelheden.—Verslagen der Afd. Natuurk. Dl. 6, 29 Mei, ’97 - 23 Apr. 798, pp. 51 — 60. * Ueber die Vertheilung der motus peculiares der Sterne.—Astr. Nach., Bd. cxuiv., pp. 289-300, 1897. THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 201 of the direction of the sun’s motion, we rigidly adhere to the con- dition that the sum of the squares of the errors shall be a minimum, we have to take for granted that among the stars, the majority possesses a motion opposed to the solar motion, which, in the observed motions, is combined with the parallactic. There is a considerable number of stars whose motion, while similarly directed to that of the sun, is conspicuously greater in amount. These however, are not arbitrarily distributed. Ifa plane be drawn through the axis of the point (6) and perpendicular to the plane of the Milky-Way, one of the two hemispheres so formed is rich in stars of this character, while the other is poor. Evidently this is a peculiarity demanding further investigation. (115) Kapteyn, 1897 (Oct.)—In Oct. 1897 Kapteyn discussed the velocity of the solar motion, and that of stellar motions, in space. The results will be found hereinafter: see 1898. (116) Newcomb, 1897.—Newcomb’ in his American Ephemeris paper on the precessional constant, stated that Struve’s result corrected to the recent fundamental positions, becomes instead of R.A. =273°4, D,= 4+ 27°3, 273°4 34:9, Referring to Boss’ general result previously quoted, and regarding Tiines's Ay? Oy. SIU) es te xcs) as the most probable value of the apex of the solar motion deduced from Stumpe’s data, he concluded that the direction which most probably represented the actual solar motion was R.A. =277°5, D.= +38°0. In section xx., the elimination of the parallactic motion from the precession of each star is discussed, the distance (?) factors to produce uniformity in the mean result being related to the mag- nitudes. These are given in the next reference herein to Newcomb’s work. * De snelheid, waarmede het zonnestelsel zich verplaatst in de ruimte, en de gemiddele parallax der sterren van verschillende grootte.—Vers- lagen der Afdeeling Natuurk., Dl. 6, 1897-8, pp. 238 — 244. ? Astronomical papers prepared for the use of the American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac, Vol. vi1., Part i., The Precessional Constant.— Washington, 1897, pp. 1-76. 202 G. H. KNIBBS. (117) Mewcomb, 1897 ( June)—The question of the relation of distance to magnitude, using the solar motion as a gauge, is further examined by Newcomb in his paper on the precessional constant in No. 405 of the Astronomical Journal.’ His result, taking unity for the distance of fifth magnitude stars, the factors to make the parallactic motion uniform were found to be? Mag. 1-2 3 4 5 6 (sf Factor 0:4 0-6 0:8 1:0 1:2 1-4 As stated in the preceding article Newcomb adopted 184 hrs, as the R.A. of the solar apex.’ It is pointed out in a later paper by Boss that the coordinates deduced by Newcomb for the components of the solar motion give* R.A. =274°2, D.=+31°2 Of these codrdinates however, Newcomb says :—‘“‘it must be remembered that they are derived from stars of small proper motion, which are not the best adapted to the special determination of the solar motion.’” (118) Boss, 1897 (Aug.)—In discussing Newcomb’s value for the precessional constant,° Boss pointed out that his, Newcomh’s, result for the codrdinates of the solar motion determined the direction just given. This position however, he remarks, is at. variance with that deduced from more elaborate discussions.’ (119) D’Auria, 1897 (Oct.)—D’Auria stated that an easy solu- tion of the problem of stellar dynamics can be reached, provided the interstellar aether be assumed to be ponderable.2 The whole . article proposes to demonstrate that the revolution of the stars about the ‘centre of the universe,” conceived to be finite, takes place in the same time, viz., a little over 14 millions years. This period he represents by the equation 1 A new determination of the precessional motion.—Astr. Journ. Vol. xvir., (No. 405) pp. 161-167, 1897. ? Loc. cit., p. 168. % Loc. cit., p. 164. * See Boss 1897 hereinafter. * Loc. cit., p. 163. 6 Note on Professor Newcomb’s determination of the Constant of Pre- cession and on the Paris Conference of 1896. —Astr Journ. Vol. XvIII., (No. 410) pp. 9-12. 7 Loe. cit., p. 10. 8 Stellar Dynamics.—Journ. Franklin Inst., Vol. cxuiv., pp. 306 — 312, 1897. THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 203 T= 7 /{(Rad. Earth x Density Earth)/ (Accel. Gravity x Density Aether) } (120) Bakhuyzen, 1897 ( Dec. )—The question of the distribution of stars in space, is a fundamentally important question in complete methods of determining the solar motion: recognising this, Van de Sande Bakhuyzen' in 1898 undertook the investigation of the’ number of proper motions to be expected within definite limits, assuming any definite elements for the sun’s motion, He adopted Ludwig Struve’s values for the year 1875, viz., eas — 2165, Dis os. His fundamental hypotheses are (a) that the motus peculiares of the stars vary between very wide limits, and spatially are dis- tributed accidentally, 2.¢., both in respect of quantity and direction: (6) that the proportion of stars with motus peculiares lying between any definite limits, and included between the surfaces of concentric spheres, is independent of their radii: and (c) that the mean velocity in such a case is also independent of the radii. 2,683. stars were found to be distributed substantially as required by the hypothesis. (121) Boss, 1898 (Jan.)—Boss’—in a further discussion on Newcomb’s value for the precessional constant, roughly revising Ristenpart’s equations, allowing for Becker’s personal equation for star magnitude, adjusting to the system of the principal stars of the American Ephemeris, and so combining the equations that the solar-apex codrdinates shall depend upon 454 stars having apparent proper motion greater than 0°’1, while the correction to the Struve-Peters ~ shall be derived from the remaining 4,565 stars—found for the apex of solar motion, the value R.A. =295°4, D.= +39°°0 1 Opmerkingen over de verdeeling der sterren in de ruimte.—Verslagen d. Afd. Natuurk. D1 6, 1897-8, pp. 394-404. See also Astr. Nach., Bd. CXLVI, pp. 209-220, 1898, in which to the title is added, “nach der Grosse der Higenbewegungen.” 2 The Paris Conference and the precessional motion.—Astr. Journ., Vol.. xvit., (No. 423) pp. 118-118, 1898. % Loe. cit., p. 117. 204 G. H. KNIBBS. (122) Kapteyn, 1898 (April)—In April 1898 Kapteyn repub- lished a number of his smaller papers previously referred to, contributed to the Roya] Academy of Sciences in Amsterdam, concerning the velocity of the solar and stellar motions in space, in a more developed form in the Astronomische Nachrichten.1 This last treatise was divided into four heads :— (a) The mean velocity of the stars compared with the velocity in space of the solar-system. (6) The velocity of the solar-system in space. (c) The mean velocity of stars of different magnitudes. (d) The influence of an error in the assumed constant of pre- cession. In (a) Kapteyn developed the fundamental equations of his investigation, and discussed the definitions and assumptions, involved in their application. He criticised the legitimacy of Ristenpart’s deduction as to variation of velocity with increase of distance from the sun. Accepting for the position of the apex of solar motion the values for 1875 R.A. = 276°, D.= + 34° and dividing the stars according to their photometric magnitude, and also according to their spectral type, for the determination of which Draper’s catalogue was used, he obtained the following results :— No. of Stars. Phot. Mag. Spectr. type. [n]/V 60 O3-5 II. Te 72\285 Q0-3°5 I. and unknown | 1:35 153 Bis = 15 10 1:69] 335 4-6 — 5-5 II. 2-04 488 Te) (es Il. 1:30 162 3-—4°5 I. and unknown 1°36 254 6°6 — 7:5 all 1°95 356 4°6-5:°5 I. and unknown’ 1°41 705 5:6—6°5 I. and unknown 1:48 Total 2,585 Mean 1°51 1 Die mittlere Geschwindigkeit der Sterne, die Quantitit der Sonnen- bewegung und die mittlere Parallaxe der Sterne von verschiedener Grosse. —Astr. Nach., Bd. cxtv1., pp. 97 - 114, 1898. ahs | > ay THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 205 [m] denoting the arithmetical mean of the components of the star’s absolute velocities, taken at right angles to the line of sight, and V the absolute velocity of the sun’s motion in space; so that [n]/V denotes the ratio of the former to the latter. Kapteyn concluded that no change of velocity with increase of distance from the sun is indicated by this result. The stars were next divided into two - series, all the stars of spectral type II. being put into one, and the remaining ones into the other. These two series were again subdivided into ten groups, containing in each group an equal number, in the following manner, viz:—The stars were divided into sub-groups according to the value of the angle formed between the direction of the stars “total proper motion” and the great circle through the antiapex, these angles being 0° to + 9°, + 10° to + 19° and so on, closing with + 170° to + 180°. These greater groups (1) contained the series of stars of the least proper motion through- out the sub-groups, the second group (2) those of the next greater value, and so on to the last, 2.e., (10), which contains the stars of greatest proper motion. The result was as follows :— Spectral Type IT. Other Stars. Group. Stars. [n]/V Bees [2]/V 1 103 LeSa 139 1:58 2 103 1:30 140 1:38 3 104 1:59 139 ial: 4 103 1°50 139 esi 5 103 1:36 139 1°41 6 103 1°44 140 1°52 7 103 1°52 139 1:44 8 Os 1:62 140 1-40 9 103 1:69 139 1°43 10 105 155 140 1:40 Total 1,033 1:494 1,394 1-429 This shews no distinct evidence of a progression of the ratio, with magnitude of proper motion ; and the inclusion of other stars not embraced in the above result did not vary this result. The finally deduced motions were fn]=1-46 V Mean velocity perpendicular to line of sight. [s ]=1-86 V Mean actual linear velocity. [¢ ]|=0-93 V Mean velocity (considered as positive) in lineof sight. 206 G. H. KNIBBS. In (6), Kapteyn attempted to determine the value of the unit V: using the 51 stars of Kempf’s 1892 determination and the value above mentioned for the direction of the apex, he obtained instead of Kempf’s result previously quoted, V=12°:3 + 3:0 kilometres per second: | varying the weights however, and solving by the method of least squares, this was altered to . V=10-7 + 3:1 kilometres per second. After a further discussion, as to the inclusion and treatment of certain star-groups, and also upon the weight of the results, Kapteyn submitted as the most probable values— Solar velocity V=16-7 kilometres per second= 3:53 E annually Meanstellar vel. [s]= 31:1 m a == 0) ((e Hea E denoting the mean distance from the sun from the earth. With respect to (c), Kapteyn’s investigation appeared to shew that the average parallax (7) of a star of the photometric magni- tude (m) can be expressed by the equation— in = Bae and if k be taken as equal to 1/2, or ‘7071, then z, will have the following numerical values, viz., ; For spectral type I. 7,=0°063 bs yo LS Oma Or for all stars 5 0-106. In regard to (d) Kapteyn concluded that any error resulting from defect in the precession constant will not prejudice the results obtained more than about two per cent. (123) Mewcomb, 1899 (March )—Newcomb further examined the question of the quantity and direction of the solar motion, in the March number of the Astronomical Journal for 1899." In the first part of his paper he considered “the absolute speed of the solar motion derived from the observed parallax of stars.” Using for the codrdinates of the solar apex the values 1 Some points relating to the Solar motion and the mean parallax of stars of different orders of magnitude.—Astr. Journ., Vol. xx., (No. 457) pp. 1 - 6, 1899. THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 207 R.A. = 277°5, D.= +38°0 and employing the proper motions of 72 stars of known parallaxes, he obtained by one method, assigning different weights to the different stars V=5°85 E. V denoting the velocity per annum, and E the mean radius of the earth’s orbit. Assuming that the result is influenced overmuch by stars of large parallax, he made a second calculation, obtaining the result Wane 1D), A third computation, in which three stars, giving very great values for V, were excluded, reduced this however to V=6-4 E, say 30 kilometres per second. Again taking the mean result of 22 bright stars it was found that V=3°'5 E=16'5 kilometres per second ; which agrees with Kapteyn’s conclusions from motions in the line of sight. Sixteen stars whose annual motion exceeded 2°"6, and Arcturus, were used to determine the solar motion, giving } R.A. =276°3, D= + 41:3, R”=3°"15 R’ being the parallactic motion in terms of the mean distance of the group. | The second part of the paper is on “The most likely position of the Solar Apex.” Employing the method given in his .Astro- nomical Papers, Vol. vi11., part 1, Newcomb deduced the apex of solar motion as follows :— Stars of small proper motion. Mag. ‘ae Weight. R.A. 1D, RK’ 1—2°9 64 ik 263°°1 31°7 6:59 3°0 —3°9 a5 2 262°7 26°8 561 4:0 —4:9 327 5 266°5 31-8 3°47 TO = 59 731 11 268°5 32:0 3°14 6:0 —6°9 1034 16 277-4 30°6 2°81 70 236 4 278°2 33°6 2°86 Total 2527 Mean 272°5 3))083 i bate | - 2 208 G. H. KNIBBS. Stars of large proper motion. Num Weight, R.A. Dp. R” Stars. All magnitudes 644 10 276°°9 31°4 ? R” here denotes centennial? parallactic motion, at the mean distance of the group. In these six results, if we accept Kapteyn’s parallax-magnitude theory, see (122) above, adopt the constant 0-”106, and also the mean magnitudes 2, 34, 44, 54, 64, 74, which are probably suffici- ently near the actual means,—not given by Newcomb—the resulting velocities will be respectively 3:6, 5:2, 4:6, 5:9, 7:7, 10-7, miles per second. Pointing out that Stumpe’s mean positions, weighted according to the number of stars, when classed by proper motions, and by magnitudes were respectively R.A. = 281°°8, D.= +40°°7 283°1 38°7 and that Boss’ declination would, by correction to the new standard be D.= +42°°9 instead of 44°1, Newcomb gives the oe table of results :— ; Authority. No. of ~~ eke D. Newcomb from Bradley’s stars, small P.M. 2,527 272°5 31°3 RA 7 large P.M. 644 2769 31:4 Stumpe, mean two preceding results 995 282°4 39°7 Boss, stars of Albany Zone 279 = 283°3 42:9 from which he concludes that the most probable position is | R.A.=277°5, D.—-+-35°0, V.—2 oon: V denoting the velocity per annum, and E the mean radius of the earth’s orbit. The third and fourth parts of the paper are respectively the ‘“ Parallactic motion of the fainter stars”—giving 0°’0039 for “The mean parallax of the Vogel stars.” The paper closes with the fifth part, “Summary of Con- clusions.” Kapteyn’s speed of V = 3:5 E, and parallax formula | T. =k", with the constants previously given, are, Newcomb THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. = 209 thinks, probably near the truth: the latter at least as far as the ninth magnitude. (124) Kobold, 1899 (Sept.)—In 1899 Kobold returned to the problem of determining the solar motion by the Besselian method,’ discussing very fully the distribution over the surface of the celestial sphere of the differences between the purely parallactic motion, and the observed motion of the star, (#—y). Using a still larger number of stars, and as before dividing them into classes according to the magnitude of their proper motions, he obtained the following results :— Proper Motion. Most R.A. D. dp >1°6 1 Daley RO OORT 1‘6 to 0°8 93. 267°5 Too COMLDE 0-8 ,, 0-4 85 267°3 =1 2 0000) ree 0-4 ,, 0-2 942 269-7 Sie = 007 at G2 0-1 2 549 270-1 40:1 + -0034 => O01 Total905 269-6 0-45 E0034 Again, taking all stars with proper motions ranging from 0°02 to 0°"1, and dividing them into two series, the results were Proper Motion. 9.2 R.A. D. dp 0-1 to 0:05 583 267°6 — 3-9 + 0:0045 0-05 ,, 0:02 774 270°8 — 3°0 — 0:0048 | Epoch ue: 3 paLeeaes 1810-0 0-1 to 0-02 Total 1357 269°6 -~ 3°3 — 0:0031 These gave for the mean result from a total of 2,262 stars Proper Motion. %).,% R.A. D. dp Epoch > 0:02 2,262 269°6 —2°3 — 0002 1810-0 Kobold pointed out that the mean error of the observed direc- tions is not greater for stars of small than for those of Jarge proper motion, a point which, he affirms, demands peculiar attention. . The effect of an error in the precession-constant was shewn to be negligible, and also that one must conclude either that the influence of the motus peculiares becomes less as the proper motions become * Die Constante der Praecession und die Bewegung des Sonnensystems untersucht auf Grundlage der Methode von Bessel.—Astr. Nach., Bd. ct.,. pp. 257 — 296, 1899. N—Nov. 7, 1900. 210 | G. H. KNIBBS. smaller, or that the error found is a systematic and not an acci- dental error of the proper motions, as later on he demonstrates to be the case. With a view to deciding this question, the 905 stars of greater proper motion were divided into two series; the division . and results being as follows :— Noof = RA, D. dp Bradley's 747 268°1 —0°8 +0:"0013 Epoch Southern 158 2710 42:3 - 0135 1810-0 A further division was made, with the following result :— No. of 1 Aa eee dp Stars. Bradley’s, north of + 23-2 decl. 309 269°5 +1-2 +0:0058 5 +23°2 to —-23°2 decl. 416 2657 -15 + -0122 Southern stars Soe .. 158° 271°0 42:5 "= sOaiae Epoch 1810-0 These deductions for the direction of the solar motion are practically identical, or at least shew no systematic difference. Continuing the analysis, the surface of the sphere was divided into equal areas by hour-circle quadrants, and as before by parallels of declination (0°, 11°°3, 23°2, 36°2, 51°9 and 79°°6, referred to in the 1897 paper). It was shewn that the solution by the method of least squares led to the values R.A. = 269°8, D.= +16°5, dp —0-"0381 dp denoting a correction to the precession-constant, that is, it led to a result approximating to the position of the apex obtained with the usual assumptions ; and, in reference to the precession- constant, one in agreement with the recent investigations of various authors who have followed Airy’s method. The strict solution gave however | R.A. =270°6, D.= +071, dp'=— 00028 a solution substantially identical with that previously obtained from the 905 stars. Kobold argued that the comparison of these results significantly shews that we have not to do with mere accidental errors, but with systematically occurring differences of motion, thus with the uniformly acting motus parallacticus. THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. ZA A very complete discussion, and a further exhaustive analysis, and solution that apparently leaves nothing to be desired, furnishes as the best value of the apex of solar motion, determined by the Besselian method, R.A. = 270°4, D. = —0°2, dp= - 0°"0013, Epoch 1810-0 a value which is independent of all assumptions as to stellar distances, and one from which, as far as possible, the systematic character of the motus peculiares of the stars has been eliminated. It ought to be said that it is quite impossible in the compass of a necessarily short reference to give anything like an adequate pre- sentation of the comprehensive and masterly way in which the question has been discussed by Kobold. (125) Backhouse, 1599 ( Nov.)—Referring to Newcomb’s deter- mination of solar motion, Backhouse remarked that the point regarded as fixed, and to which the motion is referred should be defined." (125a) Veenstra, 1899 ( Nov. )—Since going to press, two papers on the solar motion are to hand in the translated Proceedings of Science Section of the Royal Academy of Amsterdam, Vol. 11., published July 1900. The first is by Veenstra.* Using an unpublished catalogue, prepared by Kapteyn, of the Bradley stars, and applying systematic corrections, Veenstra obtains the follow- ing results, in which the first results are from proper motions less than 0”3; and the last one is from 151 stars of proper motion greater than that amount. Spectral Type. 32.0 R.A. D. I. 965% 268°3 +36°7 II. JO5) 2724 3G FL 710% 273°5 33°9 LY, 710% 270-6 34:3 Epoch 1900? and Il. 675! 269°5 34°3 J.and II. 1675% 274-2 30°1 PML =@s ol, 262-4 42°2 1The solar motion.—The Observatory, Vol. xx1I., pp. 395-6, 1899. 2 On the systematic corrections of the proper motions of the stars con- tained in the Auwers-Bradley catalogue, and the coordinates of the solar motion in space.—Translated Proc. Roy. Acad., Amsterdam, Vol. 11., pp. 262 — 267, 1900. ’ 7 i. . $. . In these, the former of each pair is from proper motion in declin- 212 G. H. KNIBBS. ation alone, the latter from the proper motions in declination and right ascension. These results have not been plotted on the illustrative figures, viz. 1 and 1 (a). (126) Mewcomb, 1899 (Dec.)—Newcomb replied that the definition is tedious, but the point referred to by Backhouse and its definition is well understood. 1264) Kapteyn, 1900 (Jan. )—The second paper is by Kapteyn, discussing critically the solutions by Airy, Argelander, and Kobold, and shewing the equations of each type of solution or modification thereof.” Kapteyn clearly expounds the hypotheses on which these proceed, and shews how far the solutions are in agreement therewith. His conclusion is that what must perhaps more than anything else, hinder us from accepting the methods so far used for the derivation of the solar motion is, that quantities treated as small are in reality noé so. (127) Yowell, 1900 (March )—Yowell® taking 86 fundamental stars from the Berliner Jahrbuch, whose proper motions were greater than 0-2 and less than 0°’5 per annum, found that R.A. =284°1, D. = +34°1 He stated that if, employing Kobold’s method, he had adopted as a first approximation, the values 270° and 0°, he would have obtained a very small correction, less than 01 each way, and similarly if he had adopted 284° and 34°. He concluded that Kobold’s method gives simply small corrections to any assumed position for the apex, and leaves its real position indeterminate. (128) Kobold, 1900 (April)—Replying to Yowell’s assertion that Kobold’s method of indirect solution will furnish only small corrections whatever the assumed place of the solar motion, he, 1 Tbid., p. 443. 2? The determination of the apex of the solar motion.—Translated Proc. Roy. Acad. Amsterdam, Vol. 11., pp. 353 - 374. 3 Note on a new method of determining the solar-apex.—Astr. Journ., V olxx,, No. 479; p: 187. THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 213 Kobold, furnishes an example with 43 stars of class II.1 These gave by direct solution the result R.A. = 264°:3, D. = — 3°:5 Starting with R.A. = 270° D.= +30° as assumed values, the first approximation led to Ros, — 20K: by Dee Ie 2 Again proceeding with R.A.= 270° and D. = +11°2 as the assumed values, the result for second approximation was eA — 200: b Dees il from which Kobold concluded that doubtless thedifferential formula leads finally to the same point as is obtained by the direct solution. Whatever the explanation of the peculiar result obtained by Yowell, the one which he offers is certainly not correct. ADDITIONAL MEMOIRS, ETC. The following memoirs and results were overlooked when com- piling, in proper historical sequence, the work of the various investigators. They have advisedly been numbered so as to fall in their proper place according to the general plan. It has not, however, been possible to interpolate them. In the tabulated results hereinafter given, each appears in its proper place. (44) Jacques Cassini, 1738.—On the 12th November, 1738, J. Cassini submitted a memoir to the French Academy of Sciences, on the variations observed in the situation and motion of several fixed stars,” including those mentioned by Halley. (104) Bailly, J. S., 1775.—In his history of modern astronomy Bailly, like Michell, also considered the question of the possibility of solar motion.’ (64a) Gyldén, 1871.—In Oct. 1871, Gyldén determined the right ascension of the direction of solar motion from four groups * Bemerkungen zu dem Artikel: Note onanew method of determining the solar apex, by EH. I. Yowell, in Astr. Journ. Nr. 479. Astr. Nach., Bd. cuit., pp. 279 — 280. ? Histoire de l’Acad. roy. des Sciences, Paris 1788, p. 381. 3 Histoire de l’Astronomie moderne, Paris 1775 — 1783, t. 11., p. 662 et seq. 214 G. H. enreeen of stars,’ the results being as follows :— Group (a) (b) (c) (ad) Mean R.A. = 268°4 270°9 270"9 28679 9772 Epoch 1800? (704) Gyldén, 1877.—In his ‘Elements of Astronomy,’ Gyldén gives for the R.A. of the direction of the sun’s motion. R.A. =260°5. Epoch 1800. (844) Ubaghs, 1887.—In February 1887 Ubaghs discussed more fully the velocity of the solar motion. From a group of 34 near stars the result was practically zero, while from a larger group of 163 it amounted only to 0-05 of the radius of the terrestrial orbit, 2.¢e., say 0°15 miles per second.’ (85a) Hastman, 15S89.—The general trend of the investigation of the solar motion was the subject of a presidential address by Eastman to the Philosophical Society of Washington in December 1889.4 He discusses somewhat fully the intrinsic difficulties of the problem, gives a sketch of the history of the inquiry, and a list of some of the results of previous investigators. Using the known parallaxes of 46 stars, arranging them in groups of nine according to the magnitudes of their proper motions, he obtained the following results :— No.of Mean Mag. Mean P.M. Parallax. 9 5°57 4°93 0-732 9 5°59 2°33 0:20 9 337 1-04 0:20 9 2°36 38 0:16 10 2°84 ‘06 0-13 from which, so far as the evidence goes, it appears that the fainter, rather than the brighter stars are nearest our system! This 1 Antydningar om lagbundenhet i stjernornas rorelser.—Oefversigt kon. Vetens. Akad. Forhandl., 1871. Arg. xxvill., pp. 947 — 960. *Grundlehren der Astronomie, Leipzig, 1877, p. 388. Quoted by Eastman, see (854). * Détermination de la direction et de la vitesse du translation du systéme solaire dans l’espace.—Bull. Acad. Roy. Belg. 3me sér. t. XII1., pp. 66 —- 68, 1887. * Solar and stellar proper motions.—Bull. Phil. Soc., Washington, , Vol. xt., pp. 148 —171, 1888 — 1891. THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 215 sufficiently shews how precarious are the deductions of distance from magnitude. (944) Bakhuyzen, 1892.—In December 1892 Bakhuyzen deduced the direction of the solar motion from all stars in the Auwers-Bradley catalogue within 50° of the pole of the Milky Way, for the plane of which Houzeau’s value was accepted.! The results for the epoch 1810 ? were ee — 204° 6) I AY — 260 2) WD od From the whole of the proper motions | LES Vee PADS eee AD Bee Ser Quoting L. Struve’s results, Bakhuyzen gives finally RA. 266° 7; Di= 4310. 1034) Pannekoek, 1895.—In the June number of Nature, 1895, a discussion of the motion of the solar system by Pannekoek is referred to.” The deduction is made from stars of declination between 0° and 20°, divided into two groups according to their spectral type, and into sub-groups according to the magnitude of their proper motions. The results are as follows :— Spectral Type I. eub-froup. %. PINE R.A. D. rr 203 "02 322°°8 +14°:7 ia 93 06 304°7 12-1 re 58 abe 275°'8 ie kccs: IV. 48 “34 251-6 33°0 Spectral Type II. i CE ‘02 274°6 — 2°6 i. 52 ‘06 280-1 +35°8 LEE 65 al 268°6 31:4 The spectra were from the Potsdam observations. (1054) Tasserand, 1895 (Sept. )—In the Bulletin Astronomique of September 1895, Tisserand discusses the determination of the * De vraag of de bewegung van het zonnestelsel ten opzichte van de sterren binnen den melkweg dezelfde is als die voor de sterren daarbuiten. —Versl. d. Afd. Natuurk., 1892-3, pp. 92-93. * Nature, Vol. wir., 1895, p. 135. 216 G. H. KNIBBS. proper motion of the sun from that of the stars, and shews that the evidence of its reality is very cogent.’ (129) Defects in Bibliography of subject.—Although no known accessible source of information has been neglected, it has not been possible to make the bibliographical record here attempted —extensive as it is—complete. It is very likely that some dis- cussions of the precessional constant, containing investigations of the solar motion, may have been overlooked, despite the care taken in regard thereto. As an exhaustive determination of this con- stant, demands the eliminination of the motus parallacticus from the proper motion of each star, so that the motus peculiares, aftect- ing as they do the value of the constant, may be determined in accordance with the law of probability, particular attention has been paid to all memoirs treating of precession. In some instances I have been unable, however, to obtain copies of the memoir, ¢.g. Dreyer’s, ‘‘New determination of the constant of precession.”” Radau’s® and Bakhuyzen’s* articles in the Bulletin Astronomique which also touch on the solar motion, I have likewise failed to obtain. In cases where there was great doubt as to how and when a writer treated of the subject under consideration, I have omitted all reference to him. For example, Villarceau states that Briinnow treats of the theory of aberration, taking account of motion of the solar system. Whether this however was in the earliest edition of his spherical astronomy’ or not, I cannot ascertain. Works treating of the solar motion, of the same typeas August Tischner’s “Die Richtung der Sonnebewegung,” Giralomo Mar- zocchi’s ‘Il sole e l’universo,” and William Sandeman’s “The Path of the Sun . . . with an exposure of the fallacy of the precession of the equinoxes,” I have not troubled to note, for reasons which hardly need explanation. ‘See also, Nature, Vol. ui1., p. 487, 1895. ? Proc. Roy. Irish Acad.. 3, 1888, pp. 617 - 623 and Copernicus, 2, 1882, . pp. 135 — 155. 3 Op. cit... t. X., p. 407. * Ibid... xin per: § Lehrbuch der sphirischen Astronomie, Berlin, 1851, Bro, THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 217 (130) References in Popular Science Journals.—In general no trouble has been taken in regard to references to the subject of solar motion in popular science journals: the following brief lists however contain such references as J have noted in “Nature” and ‘The English Mechanic.” “ Nature.” Year. Name. Vol. Page. Year. Name, Vol. Page. 1884 Plummer 29 246 1890 Boss 41 548 1885 Groth 31 215-6 1890 Stumpe 43 90 1886 Homann 33 450-1 1891 5 Clerke 44 572-4 1886 Kdovesligethy 34 131 1892 Porter 47 Al 1886 Ubaghs 34 158 1893 Risteen 48 208-9 1887 Ubaghs 36 = 45 1893 Bakhuyzen 48 401-2 1890 Eastman 4] 351 1895 Pannekoek 52 135 ‘“‘Hinglish Mechanic.” Year. Vol. Page. Year. Vol. Page. Year. Vol. Page. Esoo. 2 sil 1871 12 444 1885 41 562 m i 389 1871 14 25 1891 54 175 Ha67 |. 5 43 1871 14 49 1897 OON O28 Sp i2 > 417 1880 31 5 (131) Zabulated Results.—In order that the whole biliography of the subject, and the results obtained by the various investigators may be readily examined, a synopsis has been given in Tables I. and II., the former containing the literature preceding the first numerical estimate of the direction of the motion, the latter the literature from that first estimate onwards. In order that these results may be immediately comparable, it was necessary that they should be reduced toa common epoch. For this purpose the date 1900-0 was selected, and each value has been corrected to that date. It has not always been possible to ascertain with certainty the date for which the values are assigned in the different estimates: the difficulty has occurred to every one who has con- sidered the matter, and is a fact is to be regretted. The uncer- tainty is indicated by a query mark. In order to facilitate the reduction, Table III. was prepared, which gives the precessional 218 G. H. KNIBBS. ditferences in declination and right ascension for the period 1800 — 1900 approximately. In the computations no especial care was taken to ensure accuracy to the nearest tenth of a degreee, since the real uncertainty runs into degrees. The basis of Table III. is, a denoting right ascension, 6 declination, in which N=+,S=-, and ¢ is the period in years, Aa/At = 0°0128 + 0°°00557 sin a tan 6 Ad/Aét = 0°00557 cos a. | In each case the nearest star to any determination of the solar- apex has been given : in most cases its coordinates have been taken from the Auwers-Bradley catalogue, and reduced from the epoch of that catalogue 1810 to 1900 for precession merely, the small correction for proper motion being neglected. These resulting positions for the epoch 1900, for the solar-apex and for the nearest stars, have in each case been plotted in the illustrative figures. In the projection employed the celestial equator and the 240° circle of right ascension have been uniformly divided. The radii of the circles of declination are determined on the polyconic system. The arcs of right ascension are circular, the centres lying on the equator and so determined that the intercepted arcs on the parallel of 60° declination shall be one half of those at the equator. For mere diagrammatic purposes the distortion is not serious. CONCLUSION. (132) In the Ephemeris of the Observatory of Rio de Janeiro for 1900 it is stated that the approximate codrdinates for the solar motion are? R.A. = 280°, D. = + 40° the point being in the constellation Hercules. It will be manifest however, from the results tabulated in IJ. and shewn in the illus- +O Sol, centro de attraccio dos planetas, nao é fixo no espaco. As observacées estellares provao que elle se desloca, arrastandando comsigo o systema planetar e dirigendo-se para um ponto denominado Apez, situado na constellagao de Hercules, e cujas coordendas approximadas sao :— R.A. = 280°, D.= 40°.—Annuario de 1900, p. 104. THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 219 trative figure, that this statement is ill-founded. Neither the direction nor the quantity of the solar motion has yet been ascer- tained to a high order of precision, nor has the best method of determination been established beyond dispute. The general mean of the whole of the results, would indicate a point approx- imately having the coordinates, and velocity, R.A. = 270-5, D.= +23°9, V.=15°3, miles= 24-6 kilometres. The question as to the value of this result, turns however upon the decision as to whether the Besselian, or Argelanderian or Airy method should be followed, and to some extent upon the definition of what is meant by the solar motion in space. This it ls not proposed here to inquire into. It will suffice to say that, per se, a mere mean has no strong claim to acceptance. In the absence however of decisive evidence that a particular solution should be adopted, such a mean can be taken as affording on the whole a very probable value. In conclusion, I desire to express my appreciation of the very kind way in which the astronomical literature of the Sydney Observatory has been placed at my disposal by the Government Astronomer, Mr. H. C. Russell, B.a., C.M.G., F.R.S., etc., and my thanks to that gentleman for his kindness and courtesy ; also to Mr. J. Tebbutt, F.p.a.s., etc., proprietor of the Observatory at Windsor, for similar kindness and courtesy. Figures 1 and 1 (a), and Tables I., II. and III., will be found , in the subsequent pages. 220 G. H. KNIBBS. 280° 270° Fig. 1. Round dots shew the position of the solar apex, reduced to the instant 1900°0. | The reference number corresponding to the paragraph number in the Bibliography and History, is denoted by vertical figures thus :—86. Mean Result, excluding results (1254), not shewn, R.A.=270°5; D.= + 23°°9; V.=15°3 miles per second. 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ORT ene nope eG sey -qoodnay mene ‘OUIUN ‘ayeq «= ‘ON Jo" 230 ‘ponutyu0o— ‘aovdy w1 uowopy wv706' fo worssnosig pun Uuo1nurusag — "TT 231 THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. *poyjou §,ploqoy z ‘poyjour Sarenbs 4svory 7 2 TE, 2 SS ee oc RIPE, SR Ie a Le Me IRM! or, ee ok 0941p sf 6-88 ¢.E2z ong ae Selim ss BG ‘6 0-98+ ! 1-42 eerie ye AOE) eae = cs ee ey, eS “ €-18+ £0-69% sTuoIaH Q 16 *" L-98+ $892 es 2 e006L e696. as V1qsuedA 6681 VST “UOTJOW ABTOS JO AoZOVIVYO OATPRISy—osnoyyoug 6681 CZI 0941p ue B= Gri BO= ROL 7) GUMS [ROU "aa0qe eas TyonTydO gg °° 1-0 S122 sl-0+ 9.012 & es ef a cs 8-91+ £6.89 sI[no1eH €6 G9I+ 8.04% 19-91+ 8.69% ae eo pe oes penis a ce G.e4 5 2-e2¢ Tyontydg 72 *" Cee UG ee coe OIE, Scr , % WANGANELLA .~1 A % 7, oA Mle, oy ERILDERIE © urna Shh Ke 2, TOCU Scale 90 miles toan Inch ape Howe NOTE Approx.area of effective catchment kt S. HEC Robinson Lith Journal Royal Society of NS.W., Vol. XX XTV., 1900, Plate VI. Ee Sessmetneg RTT eR SCORN Te A a aoc emo eae bE Obsidian Bomb from near Bathurst, New South Wales. Smaller figure natural size. See pp. 118 - 120. Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. XXXIV., 1900. Plate VII. (dddddldddddi dtddbddaiddaiisiaisasiddd Fig. 2 ugget of native silver and copper, Lake Superior. 2 The light parts are silver and the dark copper. Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. XXXIV., 1900. Plate VIII. Yj Fig. 3—Crystals of Native Silver seated ona crystal of native copper, Lake Superior. 2 diams. Fig. 4—Section of the preceding, No. 10, 2 diams. No silver is shown. a yi a a i Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. XX XIV., 1900. Plate IX. Ly G Yj, WS SS SSSA MAMAN Fig. 6—Section of a nugget of native copper, Burra Burra, South Australia. 2 diams. s mer ee, . y Aires Y 4 “ ~~ , ‘ fs CH FSpOy Menpistraichopsinn ta kMieleyisve SMARTS yaree UL he sassie | winoisasitinnawan hitter eens ieee F E a ‘ ~~ . Z - , 2 * n ic 7 oh 4 Wourual Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. XXXIV. 1900. Platex. Fig. 1—Exterior of a gold nugget, Gippsland, ? Victoria. 2 diams. Fig. 2—Etched section of the above, showing quartz. 2 diams. > sty "ener | aes Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. XXXIV., 1900. Plate XI. soctothnagenntenntenmenants Y Yi Z; Y Yn Yj Wi Y Y Uy Fig. 3—Section of a gold nugget, Queenstown, Victoria. 2 diams. Fig. 4—Section of a gold nugget, Molyneux River, New Zealand. 3 diams. — vf. o> on -~— TY ’ ie : ’ . { ° . : Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. XXXIV., 1900. Le LLL Fig. 6—Sections of the above. 2 diams. Plate XT1. | 2 rs ae w Pe Ome th 8) re Er ne Tin Pn aie Yournal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. XXXIV.,1900. Plate XIII. ba, SLEDGE LT tela sad Li tas EL Ea EE a sa aT at fel ashy aa or ua Fig. 7—Section of a gold nugget, Klondyke. 3 diams. —$—<—_—_———————————————_—————_— ses ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE Aopal Society of Aew South ales ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, MAY 2, 1900. The Annual General Meeting of the Society was held at the Society’s House, No. 5 Elizabeth-street North, on Wednesday evening, May 2nd, 1900. The President, W. M. Hamuet, F.c.s., in the Chair. Forty-eight members and six visitors were present. The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. Three new members enrolled their names and were introduced. The following Financial Statement for the year ended 31st March, 1900, was presented by the Hon. Treasurer, and adopted: GENERAL ACCOUNT. RECEIPTS. ey Se Gl, £ os. d. One Guinea ... Ae see 938 9 O Two Guineas ... 86 Sdn OD ley O) | Subscriptions Arrears... ee ate ae 64 1 O( 534 9 0 Advances ae sie ue Lor 0 | Entrance Fees and Compositions so ; 5412 0O Parliamentary Grant on Subscriptions Pecéwea Vote for 1899-1900 ... wis ues ee 000.0 “0 a 500 O O Rent... ae ae sie aes aa aa 15 0 O Sundries... se ee sie sales ae Be. oe 13 138 3 Total Receipts ee cee See cao a 3 Balance on 1st April, 1899 Vee aad sit fod sc 35 18 4 £1153 12 7 lv. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. PAYMENTS. £ s. @ £8 Advertisements... wae sae A fa 24 3 6 Assistant Secretary zis Se — .. 250 0 0 Books and Periodicals ... 52 aN «se 12654956 Bookbinding a ; ae Soa 2 “630 Freight, Charges, Pauline) bo th SoG 2 -V7S Furniture and Effects... fe ae i 2 5 6 Gas ... ee ee as see oe wa 26° 2 6 Housekeeper hes ae ee Bc a 10 0 O Insurance ... ae wee roe ous 120 Interest on Mortgage oo: iy 2a ay 56 0 O Office Boy ... ae =e ae see in 17 14 8 Petty Cash Expenses ... ak S an I 236 Postage and Duty Stamps es aes as 23 0 O Panning oo ‘ 2118 6 Printing and Bubhehine J ounfall Be ) 2oze lee Printing Extra Copies of Papers he see 6 6 0 Rates ae sais py etS) Refreshments A niente at Mecenee es 25 7 6 Repairs... sot od 5 me cae S21 2iiG Stationerv ... wit we se on ee Tl 850 Sundries... bas ie side sis one 20 3 8 Total Payments Bete . ——— 966 18 Repayment to Clarke Memorial Fund... a 150 0 Balance on 8lst March, 1900, viz.:— Cash in Union Bank, General Account ... 13 1oeee e B. & I. Fund z} 8 0 6 Cogn in hand.. wits or er ted 10 0 0 . ———— 36 14 £1158 12 BUILDING AND INVESTMENT FUND. REcEIPTs. £ s. Loan on Mortgage at 4% oe: pee aes BAe ... 1400 0 Clarke Memorial Fund— Loan at current Savings Bank rate of interest .. me 64 19 £1464 19 PayMENTs. — Sess Advance to General Account 31st March, 1897 ieee 8 0O Balance 31st March, 1900 Bs iis Si0 “i, .. 1456 18 £1464 19 2 ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Vv. CLARKE MEMORIAL FUND. RECEIPTS. . SAO Amount of Fund, 31 March, 1899 ao ae ane an 408 1470 Interest to 31 March, 1900 ae ome oe i ae lal KOT a2 £420 4 2 seta Sef) Gis Deposit in Savings Bankof New South Wales, March 31,1900 205 5 0O Deposit in Government Savings Bank, March 31, 1900 oe lo0n0) 10 Loan to Building and Investment Fund, March 31,1900 ... 6419 2 £420 4 2 AUDITED AND FOUND CORRECT, DAVID FELL, ¢c.4.a. ) Honorary H. O. WALKER ...... y Auditors. Sypney, 20th April, 1900. H. G. A. WRIGHT, Honorary Treasurer. W. H. WEBB, Assistant Secretary. Messrs. C. Hedley and 8. H. Barraclough were appointed Scrutineers, and Dr. H. G. A. Wright deputed to preside at the Ballot Box. A ballot was then taken, and the following gentlemen were elected officers and members of Council for the current year :— President: Pror. LIVERSIDGH, m.a., LL.D., F.R.S. Vice-Presidents: CHARLES MOORE, t.t.s. HENRY DEANE, ™.a., M. Inst. C.E. Pror. T. W. E. DAVID, B.a., v.c.s. | W. M. HAMLET, F.c.s., F.1.c. Hon. Treasurer : H. G. A. WRIGHT, m.pr.c.s. Eng., u.s.a. Lond. Hon, Secretaries: J. H. MAIDEN, F.us. | G. H. KNIBBS, F.R.a.s. Members of Council: C. O. BURGE, M. Inst. C.E. H.C. RUSSHLL, B.A., c.M.G., F.R.S. C. W. DARLEY, M. Inst. C.E. HENRY G. SMITH, F.c.s. F. B. GUTHRIE, F.c.s. Pror. ANDERSON STUART, m.p. H. A. LENEHAN, F.z.a.s. J. STUART THOM F. H. QUAIFE, m.a., m.p. F. TIDSWELL, m™.B., D.P.H. vi. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. The certificate of one candidate was read for the third time, of two for the second time, and of four for the first time. The following gentleman was duly elected an ordinary member of the Society :— Bender, Ferdinand, Accountant, 21 Elizabeth-street N. The following announcements were made :— 1. That the Society’s Journal for 1899, Vol. xxxtt1., was in the hands of the binder, and would shortly be ready for delivery. 2. That the Officers and Committee of the Engineering Section had been elected for the ensuing Session, and the dates fixed for their meetings as follows :— SECTION MEETINGS. ENGINEERING— Wednesday, May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. (8 p.m.) ok a .. .16 20 18 15 19 Sete SECTIONAL COoMMITTEES—NSzEssi1on 1900. Section K.—Engineering. Chairman—Norman Selfe, M. Inst. C.E. Hon. Secretary and Treasurer—S. H. Barraclough, M.M.£., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E. Committee—Henry Deane, M. Inst. C.E., Percy Allan, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., G. R. Cowdery, Assoc M. Inst.C.E., J. M. Smail, M. Inst. C.E, J. I. Haycroft, M.E., MI.C.E.,1, T. J. Bush, H. H. Dare, m.z., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., and Lee Murray, m.c.t. Past-Chairmen, ew officio Members of Committee for three years :— C. O. Burge, M. Inst. C.E., T. H. Houghton, M. Inst. C.E., M. Inst. m.E., and H. R. Carleton, M. Inst. C.E. 3. That the Officers and Committee of the Medical Section would be elected and the dates fixed for their meetings on the 18th May. 4. That the alterations to the rules passed at the General Monthly Meeting, November Ist, 1899, would be submitted for con- firmation this evening, it being the Annual General Meeting. On the motion of Mr. G. H. Knibbs, seconded by Mr. Lewis Whitfeld, it was unanimously resolved that the following amendments be agreed to :— | Rule ITI. was amended to read as follows :— The other Officers of the Society shall consist of the President, who shall hold office for not more than one year continuously, but ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Vili, shall be eligible for re-election after the lapse of one year ; four Vice-Presidents, an Honorary Treasurer, and two Honorary Secretaries, who, with ten other members, shall constitute the Council for the management of the affairs of the Society. The last clause of Rule V., was repealed, and the following substituted in lieu thereof :— Such list shall be exhibited in the Society’s Rooms at least one calendar month before the day appointed for the Annual General Meeting. Any member of the Society not disqualified by Rules XIII, XIV., or XIVa., may be nominated for the position of President, Vice-President, Honorary Treasurer, Honorary Secre- tary, or Member of the Council, provided that his candidature shall have been notified to the Honorary Secretary or Secretaries under the hands of two qualified voters—such notification being countersigned by the nominee—at least fourteen days before the day appointed for the Annual General Meeting. A complete list showing the names of those recommended for election by the Council, and those nominated as in the last pre- ceding clause, shall be sent to each member of the Society, at least seven days before the day appointed for the Annual General Meeting. Rule Va. was repealed. Rule VI. was amended as follows:—In lieu of the first paragraph of the above Rule, read :— The balloting list for the election of Officers and Members of Council shall contain a list of the names of those recommended by the Council and also of those otherwise nominated as provided for in Rule V. Heading the former, the words “ Recommended by Council” shall be inserted, and opposite the latter the names of the nominators. Mr. W. M. HAMUst, F.c.s., F.1.c., then read his address. After some introductory remarks, the state of the Society was reported to be in a satisfactory condition, the papers contributed and the work done during the year being well up to the average, Vill. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. while the monthly general meetings were well attended and appreciated by members. The feature of modern chemistry is the vast accumulation of facts relating to a great number of bodies of interest to widely varying departments of human life. Enumer- ating the various branches of the science he said that pure chemistry dealt essentially with the properties and transformations of what we provisionally term ‘matter.’ The known properties and behaviour of matter carry us back in imagination to remote periods of this planet’s history, when as yet silicon and oxygen had not united to give us material for the sister science of geology to deal with. Coming down to historic periods we found the early history of Chemistry in the land of the Nile, but in considering the historic periods of the north of Africa, it was almost impossible to avoid digressing for a moment or two on what is taking place in the south of the same continent, events which are regarded by the man of science as ugly survivals, not of the fittest, but of the undesirable. Going back to the ancient land of Egypt, modern discovery gives us some interesting facts that awaken sympathy in the chemist as well as the antiquarian, such as the origin of the words :—alchemy, chemistry, nitre, ammonia, Rame (a name for copper that has probably been handed down from Ra the Sun- god of the old Egyptians). Four words of Arabic or Egyptian source were taken as the text or frame work of this address, namely, alchemy, alkali, alkaloid and alcohol. Under the first came a brief review of the most prominent alchemists. The second afforded scope for the derivation of the word denoting the volatile alkali—the alkaline air—ammonia. In the case of the term alkaloid the researches of Fischer were referred to as showing the constitution of such alkaloids as theobromine and caffeine from structural formulz of uric acid. Under the generic term ‘alcohol’ the fermentation of other substances than those in use for the production of spirits of wine were dealt with. Commencing with the organisms that cause the fermentation of urine, yielding the compound ammonia carbonate, detailed reference was made to the application of the principles of fermentation to the crude ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. 1x. sewage from large cities, and to the process now so widely known as the ‘septic tank system,’ the ‘biolysis of sewage,’ or as the author would call it—the zymolysis of sewage. Particulars are given of the method of experiment, both in England and in Australia. It is shown that over fifty per cent. of purification is effected without the aid of chemicals of any kind, the effluents being of sufficient degree of purity as to sustain the life of various kinds of fish, and to occasion no harmful influence when run into streams. The process is summed up as being the readiest and the cheapest method of purification known. ‘The rationale of the method is, that first of all a fermentation is allowed to go on by which the proteid or albuminous matters are changed into ammonia, marsh gas, and carbonic acid gas, afterwards the process of nitrification by minute micro-organisms finishes the change from ammonia to nitrous and nitric acids—compounds all ready to become assimilated by plant life. Thus, it is a simple natural process, and may be looked upon as ¢he natural process of sewage purification, but subject to control; in this respect differing from all other processes, which are not subject to control. The birth of chemistry showed man searching for a stone that would turn all the baser metals into gold, and an elixir or— ‘A tincture Of force to flush Old Age with Youth.’ But while men were engaged in these things, some valuable lessons were learned, and as a result, we have our present day chemistry and the means of solving many problems of Sanitation and the Public Health. A vote of thanks was passed to the retiring President, and Professor LIVERSIDGE, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., was installed as President for the ensuing year. Professor LiversipGE thanked the members for the honour conferred upon him. The following donations were laid upon the table and acknow- ledged :— a ; 4 “os xX. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. TRANSACTIONS, JOURNALS, REPORTS, &ce. (The Names of the Donors are in Italics). Bristot—Bristol Naturalists’ Society. Proceedings, New Series Vol. 1x., Part i., 1898. The Society CamMBRIDGE—Cambridge Philosophical Society. Proceedings, Vol. x., Parts ili. and iv., 1899. +. Public Free Library. Annual Report (44th) 1898-9. The Library Dusitin—Royal Irish Academy. Proceedings, Third Series, Vol. v., No. 83, November 1899. The Academy Easton, Pa.—American Chemical Society. Journal, Vol. xxt., Nos. 11,12, 1899; Vol. xx1r., Nos. 1, 2, 1900. The Society. EpinpurcH—Royal Physical Society. Proceedings, Vol. xtv., Part i1., Session 1898-99. Royal Scottish Geographical Society. Scottish Geographical Magazine, Vol. xv., Nos 11, 12, 1899; Vol. xv1., Nos. 1, 2, 1900. » Fort Monroz.—United States Artillery. Journal, Vol. xi1., Nos. 1, 2, 3, (Whole Nos. 39 and 40) 1899. The Schoot Guascow—Philosophical Society of Glasgow. Proceedings, Vol. RX go-go: The Society Lrereps—Yorkshire College. Annual Report (25th) 1898-9. The College Liverpoot—Literary and Philosophical Society. Proceedings, Vol. witr., 1898-99. The Society Lonpon—Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. Journal, New Series, Vol. 11., Nos. 1, 2, 1899. The Institute Chemical News, Vol. txxxx., Nos. 2083 — 2092,1899; Vol. Lxxxt., Nos. 2092 - 2108, 1900. The Editor Electrical Engineer, Old Series, Vol. xxx1., New Series, Vol. xxv., Nos. 1—9, 1900. Ue Geological Society. Quarterly Journal, Vol. tv., Part iv., No. 220, 1899. Vol. tvi., Part i., No. 221, 1900: List of Fellows 1899. The Society Imperial Institute. Journal, Vol. v., Nos. 59 and 60,1899; — Vol. vz., Nos. 61, 62, 1900: The Institute Institution of Civil Engineers. Minutes of Proceedings, Vol. cxxxvil., Part iv., 1898-9; Subject Index, Vols. CXIX. —- OXXXVIII., Sessions 1894-95 to 1898-99. The Institution Institution of Mechanical Engineers. Proceedings, Nos. 2, and 3, 1899. Bs Iron and Steel Institute. Journal, Vol. tv1., No. 2, 1899. The Institute Linnean Society. Journal, Botany, Vol. xxv1., No. 178; Vol. xxxiv., No. 239, 1899. Zoology, Vol. xxvit., Nos. 176, 177, 1899. List of Fellows 1899-1900. Proceedings, from November 1898 to June 1899. The Society Meteorological Office. Meteorological Observations at Sta- tions of the Second Order 1895, Official No. 1387. Report of the Meteorological Council for the year ending 31st March, 1899, Official No. 140. ‘ -The Office ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. 4 Lonpon—continued. Mineralogical Society. Mineralogical Magazine and Journal, Vol. x11., No. 56, October 1899. The Society Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain. Calendar 1900. Pharmaceutical Journal, Fourth Series, Vol. 1x., Nos. 1531 - 1540, 1899; Vol. x., Nos. 1541 - 1545, 1547, 1549, 1900. ” ' Physical Society of London. Proceedings, Vol. xv1., Parts Vii., vill., 1899. Science Abstracts, Vol. 11., Parts xi., xii., Nos. 23, 24, 1899 and Index; Vol. 11., Parts i., ii, Nos. 25, 26, 1900. Quekett Microscopical Club. Journal, Vol. vir., No. 45,1899. The Club Royal Agricultural Society of England. Journal, Ser. 3, Vol. x., Part iv., No. 40, 1899. The Society Royal Astronomical Society. Monthly Notices, Vol. urx., No 10, Supplementary Number; Vol. ux., Nos. 1, 2, November and December, 1899; No.3, January, 1900. Royal Geographical Society. The Geographical Journal, Vol. xtv., Nos. 5, 6, 1899; Vol. xv., Nos. 1, 2, 1900. Royal Institution of Great Britain. Proceedings, Vol. xv., 3) ” Part iii., No. 92, 1898. The Institution Royal Meteorological Society. Quarterly Journal, Vol. xxv., No. 112, 1899. Meteorological Record, Vol. x1x., No. 73, 1899. The Society Royal Microscopical Society. Journal, Parts v., vi., Nos. 132, 133, 1899; Part i., No. 134, 1900. Royal Society. Year Book, No. 4, 1900. Royal Society of Literature. Transactions, Series 2, Vol. MM DArhS Ts, ikie, LOO: Royal United Service Institution. Journal, Vol. xx111., Nos. +9 260, 261, 262, 1899. The Institution Sanitary Institute. Journal, Vol. xx., Partiv., 1900. The Institute Society of Arts. Journal, Vol. xivi1., Nos 2449 — 2451, 1899; Vol. xtviii., Nos. 2452 — 2469, 1899-1900. The Society Zoological Society of London. Transactions, Vol. xv., Part iv., !899. Maprson—Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. bed Transactions, Vol x11., Part i., 1898. The Academy Mancuester —Conchological Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Journal, Vol. 1x., No. 9, 1900. The Society Manchester Geological Society. Transactions, Vol. xxv1., Parts ix. — xl1l., Sessions 1898-99 - 1899-1900. Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society. Memoirs and Proceedings, Vol xui11., Part v., 1898-99; Vol. xutv., Part 1., 1899-1900. Nantes—Socicté des Sciences Naturelles de l’Ouest dela France. Bulletin, Tome r1x., Trimestre 3, 1899. New Yorx—American Geographical Society. Builetin, Vol. 33 xxx1., No. 4, 1899. The Academy Xi. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. New YorK—continued. American Institute of Electrical Engineers. Transactions, Vol. xvi., Nos. 6 - 10, 1899. The Institute American Institute of Mining Engineers. Transactions, Vol. xxvitl., 1898. A American Mathematical Society. Transactions, Vol. 1., No. 1, 1900. The Society School of Mines, Columbia University. The School of Mines Quarterly, Vol. xx1., No. 1, 1899. The School Oxrorp—Radcliffe Library. Catalogue of Books added during the year 1899. The Library Paris—Ecole d’ Anthropologie de Paris. Revue, Année x., Nos. 1, 2, 1900. “The Director Ecole Nationale des Mines de Paris. Statistique del’ Industrie Minérale et des appareils & vapeur en France et en Algérie pour l’année, 1898. Ministére des Travaux Publics. Feuille des Jeunes Naturalistes. Catalogue de la Bibliothéque, Fascicule Nos. 27, 28. 1899-1900. Revue Mensuelle d’ Histoire Naturelle, 3 Ser., Année xxx., Nos. 349, 350, 1899; Nos. 351 - 358, 1900. The Editor Société d’Anthropologie de Paris. Bulletins, Série 4, Tome x.. Fase 3, 1899. The Society Société de Biologie. Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires, Série 11, Tome1., Nos. 29 - 39, 1899; Tome u11., Nos. 1-7, 1900. ’ ” Société Entomologique de France. Annales, Vol. Lxvit., Trimestre 1 - 4, 1898; Bulletin, Année 1898. a Société Francaise de Minéralogie. Bulletin, Tome xxi1., Nos. We Sr 1899. oe) Société Francaise de Physique. Bulletin Bimensuel, Nos. 137 - 189, 1899; Nos. 140-145, 1900. Séances, Année 1899, Fasc. 2. a Société de Géographie. Bulletin, Sér. 7, Tome xx., Trimestre 3, 4, 1899. Comptes Rendus des Séances, No. 7, 1899. a Société Géologique de France. Bulletin, Sér. 3, Tome xxvit., Nos. 3, 4, 1899. ” PHILADELPHIA —American Entomological Society. Transactions, Vol. xxvt., No. 2, 1899. 9 Franklin Institute. Journal, Vol. cxtvii1., Nos. 5, 6, 1899; Vol. cxuiix., Nos. 1, 2, 1900. The Institute Philadelphia Commercial Museum. American Trade with India 1898. The World’s Commerce and the United States share of it, second edition 1899. The Museum University of Pennsylvania. Catalogue 1899-1900. | Con- tributions from the Botanical Laboratory, Vol. 11., No. 1, 1899. University Bulletin, Vol. 1v., Nos. 1, 2, 1899. The University Waener Free Institute of Science. Transactions, Vol. v1., 1899. The Institute ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Xili, ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, JUNE 6, 1900. The General Monthly Meeting of the Society was held at the Society’s House, No. 5 Elizabeth-street North, on Wednesday evening, June 6th, 1900. The President, Prof. LivERsIDGE, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., in the Chair. Thirty-one members and one visitor were present. The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. One new member enrolled his name and was introduced. Dr. Marden and Mr. T. H. Houghton were appointed Scrutineers, and Mr. C. O. Burge deputed to preside at the Ballot Box. The certificates of two candidates were read for the third time, of four for the second time, and of two for the first time. The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary members of the Society :-— | McKay, G. A., Chief Mining Surveyor, Department of Mines. Wallach, Bernhard, b.e. Syd.; Darlinghurst. THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ :— 1. ‘On the relation, in determining the volumes of solids, whose parallel transverse sections are n*’ functions of their position on the axis, between the position aud coefficients of the section and the (positive) indices of the functions,” by G. H. Knipps, F.R.A.S. The integral of the function A,=A+ Be? + Czt+ Dz +ete........ peal) oppo LOR Os Vi pad CA. ee REA eremieae keel will represent an area if A, be an ordinate, or a volume if it bean vlz. xy plane. In the former case the boundaries of the area are the curve, the axis, and the ordinates at z, and z,; in the latter case the xy planes at those abscisse are the parallel terminal planes of a volume generated by the motion of one of them, its area how- ever changing in terms of the function. No loss of generality occurs by making z,— 72, unity in (2), since the origin and unit Xiv. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. will not affect the degree of the equation; any fractions of the axis must however be raised to the powers of the original function {1) in order to determine its value for z, plus the fraction. Let ee | aA, = BA, + ete. \ i (3) a + Bete. where A, is the value of the original function for z, + a/(z,— 2%) and so on; then (3) may be written VaA+ = (aa? + Bis...) aw are a dnene (4) oO Oo Equating (4) with (1); remembering that z in the latter is to be -considered unity, and w being any index as 7, q, 7, etc., we have a(a"— >) +B (5) +ete. =0 aha (5) as the fundamental equation in determining the relations between the indices, the position of the sections of the axis, the number of sections to be taken, and the weight-coefficients of the section. ‘The divisions of the subject as treated in the paper are as follows : 1. Problem defined. 2. General relation between indices, number and position of sections, and weight-coefficients. 3. Determination of the ratio of the m +1 weight-coefficients, when the number m of indices is one less than the number of values of the variable. 4. Number of indices greater than the number of values of the variable, diminished by unity. 5. Number of indices less than the number of values of the aS diminished by unity. 6. Determination of the n—k=™m weights. 7. Position of a single section. 8. Positions of two sections. 9. Limiting positions of two symmetrically situated sections. 10. Two symmetrically situated sections and their conjugate indices. 11. Asymmetrical positions of two sections. 12. Three symmetrical sections, viz.,a middle and the terminal sections. 13. A middle section, and two other sections equidistant therefrom, all of equal weight. 14. Two terminal and one intermediate section. 15. General result of the method of finite differences. 16. General theory of symmetrically situated sections with sym- metrical weight-coefficients. 17. Examples of the application of the general formula. 18. The number of indices satisfied by a given number of symmetrical sections. 19. Manifold infinity of possible formule with symmetrical sections. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XV. The paper contained a number of tables of formule, and was illustrated by figures shewing the graphs of the functions. It is demonstrated that when the axis is divided into pan even number of parts, and the weight-coefficients suitably determined are identical for sections equidistant from the mid-section, the terminal sections being included, then the integral satisfies a (p+1)**function of the variable; but when similarly the axis is divided into an 4, odd number of parts, then only an 2*° function is satisfied. That is to say when there is a middle section, the function satisfied is of the same degree as when the number of parts into which the axis divided is one greater, there being in the latter case, of course, no middle section. 2. “On the amyl ester of Eudesmic acid occurring in Eucalyptus Oils,” by Henry G. Smiru, F.c.s., Assistant Curator, Techno- logical Museum, Sydney. In a paper read before this Society, July 1898, on the “Stringy- bark Trees of New South Wales,” Mr. R. T. Baker and the author show that an ester was present in the oil of Hucalyptus macro- rhyncha. Since then esters have been found to be present in several Eucalyptus oils. The oil of the ‘Black Gum” ZLucalyptus aggregata contains an ester in large amount 57:7 per cent. being calculated on the assumption that only one ester is present in the oil. Dextropinene is the other principal constituent in this oil, this had a specific rotation [a],+27:13. The crude oil of this species is very fluid, and it had, for a Eucalyptus oil, a very high specific gravity 0°956 at 15° C., only 24 ounces of oil was obtained from 400 ibs of leaves, so that the yield of oil is very small. Neither phellandrene nor eucalyptol were present in the oil. The alcohol of the ester was found to be amyl] alcohol proved by the formation of its characteristic acetate and oxidation io valeric acid. The acid of the ester is new, it crystallises finely in rhombic prisms and in appearance resembles salicylic acid. It melts at 160° C., sublimes with difficulty unchanged. It is but little soluble in cold water (1 in 1,355 parts) easily soluble in hot water, alcohol, ether, acetone, and chloroform; but insoluble in benzene, carbon. XV. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. disulphide and petroleum spirit. It forms a well crystallised silver salt. Ferric chloride gives a light orange precipitate in the solution of the ammonium salt. Copper sulphate forms a bluish- green precipitate. Barium or calcium chlorides do not give pre- cipitates. The acid is unsaturated and forms a dibromide. The molecular weight of the acid, determined by its silver salt was near 215. An acid having the formula C,,H,,0, has a molecular weight 218, and considering the acid as monobasic the formula of the ester would be C,,H,-COOOC,;H,,. Solution in nitric acid gave a crystalline acid melting at 113° C., this is the melting point of cumic acid, it had also other characteristic of that acid. If it is proved to be cumic acid, then we may consider eudesmic acid to be cumyl-angelic acid C,,H,,0,. By oxidation of the side chain of this, cuminaldehyde might be obtained. Cuminaldehyde is a frequently occurring constituent in Eucalyptus oils, and it may be that this has some connection with eudesmic acid. The valeraldehyde known to be present in Eucalyptus oils may also be connected with the amyi alcohol. It is suggested that it is the presence of this ester that gives to Eucalyptus oils their charac- teristic odour. The author shows that esters are present in fair amount in the oils of £. botryoides, HL. saligna and £. rostrata, and that an aromatic alcohol, either linalodl or geraniol, is present — in the oil of Z. patentinervis, over 16% of free alcohol being proved. The saponified oil of &. patentinervis has a fine odour. Citral also occurs in this oil, proved by its characteristic reactions. The name eudesmic acid is from Robert Brown’s name for the genus ‘“ Kudesmia.” 3. ‘*Note on a new meteorite from New South Wales,” by R. T. BAKER, F.L.S., Curator, Technological Museum, Sydney. The meteorite described in this paper was found early in January of this year, two miles from Bugaldi, a postal town fifteen miles north-west of Coonabarabran. It is pear shaped and is nearly five inches long and three inches wide at the broadest part. It belongs to that class of meteorites known as siderites, and is probably composed of iron and nickel. It has a well defined, ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XVIil. closely adhering “skin” of black magnetic material, while the metal immediately beneath this coating is silvery-white in appear- ance. On the smooth portion at the extremity of the larger end can be seen very distinctly Widmanstatten’s figures. The specimen has an exceedingly new appearance as if it had only just arrived upon the earth, and shows no signs of oxidation. 4, Dr. FRaNK TIDSWELL, D.P.H. (Camb.), gave a lantern demon- stration showing photomicrographs of certain disease germs, including those of anthrax, typhoid fever, tuberculosis, leprosy, and plague. EXHIBITS. Section of Wooden Water Pipe, partially blocked by a solid fibrous incrustation of barytic carbonate of lime. This pipe, which was taken from the 768 feet level in the Birthday Shaft, Sydney Harbour Colliery, Balmain, was used for conveying the water made in the sinking, from the water-ring fixed at 768 feet level to bottom of shaft. Exhibited by Mr. J. L. C. Rar. The following donations were laid upon the table and acknow- ledged :— TRANSACTIONS, JOURNALS, REPORTS, &c. (The names of the Donors are in Italics.) Anpany N.Y.—University of the State of New York. State Library Bulletin, Legislation Nos. 11, 12,1900. The University Annapouis, Md.—U.S. Naval Institute. Proceedings, Vol. xxv., Nos. 3, 4, Whole Nos. 91, 92, 1899; Vol. xxvr. Nos. 1, 2, Whole Nos. 93, 94, 1900. The Institute BERKELEY — University of California. Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin, Nos. 122-126, 1899. Annual Report of the Secretary to the Board of Regents for the year ending June 30, 1899. Bulletin of the Department of Geology, Vol. 11., Nos. 5, 6, 1899. Library Bulletin, No. 13,1899. Pamphlets (Reprints) 3. Quarterly Bulletins New Series, Vol.1., Nos.1, 2,1899. University Chronicle Vol. 11., Nos. 1-6,1899. Report of Final Competitions for the Phoebe A. Hearst Architectural Plan of the University of California. The University Boston, Mass.—American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Pro- ceedings, Vol. xxxv., Nos. 1-16, 1899 — 1900. The Academy Boston Society of Natural History. Proceedings, Vol. xx1x., Nos. 1-8, 1899. The Society BurraLo— Bufialo Society of Natural Sciences, Bulletin, Vol. v1., Nos. 2, 3, 4, 1899. CamBRripGe—Cambridge University Library. Report of the Library Syndicate for the year ending, 31st December, 1899. The Library b—July 4, 1900. XVill. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. CamBripGe—Cambridge Philosophical Society. Proceedings, Vol. x., Part v., 1900. ‘Transactions, Vol. xvuit., Vol. Mik, Panis. LOUO. The Society CAMBRIDGE (Mass.)—Museum of Comparative Zoélogy at Harvard College. Bulletin, Vol. xxxrv., [Geological Series, Vol. Iv.] 1899; Vol. xxxv., Nos. 3-8, 1899-1900. Memoirs,. xxu., No. 2; Vol. xxrv, 1899. The Museum Cuicaco—Field Columbian Museum. Botanical Series, Vol. 1., No. 5, Pub. 39. Report Series, Vol. 1., No. 5, Pub. 42, Zoological Series, Vol. 1., Nos. 16, 17, Pub. 40, 41. The Birds of Eastern North America, Part i. Water Birds, Part ii. Land Birds, 1899. University of Chicago Press. Astrophysical Journal, Vol. x., Nos. 3-5, 1899; Vol..x1., Nos. 1-5, 1900. Journal of Geology, Vol. vi1., Nos. 6-8, 1899; Vol. viiz., Nos. 39> 1 — 3, 1900. The University CincinnatTi—Cincinnati Society of Natural History. Journal, Volt xix, No.o,11900: The Society DavENPoRT (lowa)—Davenport Academy of Natural Sciences. Proceedings, Vol. vi1., 1897-1899. The Academy DENVER—Colorado Scientific Society. Bulletin, Nos. 1, 2, 1900. Papers read January 6 and February 3, 1900. The Society Des Moinres—lIowa Geological Survey. Annual Report, 1898, with accompanying papers, Vol. rx. The Survey Dusiin—Royal Irish Academy. Proceedings, Third Series, Vol. v., Nos. 4, 5, 1900. : The Academy Easton, Pa.—American Association for the Advancement of Science. Proceedings, Columbus Ohio, Meeting, Vol. XLVIII., 1899. ~ The Association American Chemical Society. Journal, Vol. xx11., Nos. 3-7, 1900. The Society EpinspurcH—Royal Scottish Geographical Society. The Scottish Geographical Magazine, Vol. xv1., Nos. 3 - 7, 1900. zi Scottish Microscopical Society. Proceedings, Vol. 11., No. 4, -. ' Session 1898-99. ¥: University. Edinburgh University Calendar 1900-1901. The University Fort Monroet.—United States Artillery School. Journal, Vol. x1., Nos. 1- 3, (Whole Nos. 41-438) 1900. The School Guascow—University. Glasgow University Calendar, 1900—- 1901. The University InpranapoLis—State of Indiana, Department of Geology and Natural Resources. Annual Reports (23rd and 24th) 1898 and 1899. The State Geologist Kew—Royal Gardens. Hooker’s Icones Plantarum, Vol. vir., Part ii., May 1900. The Director Lincoun—University of Nebraska. Bulletin of the U.S. Agri- cultural Experiment Station, Vol. x1., Nos. 55-59, 1898-99. Press Bulletin, No. 11, 1899. The University in ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Ix, ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, JULY 4, 1900. The General Monthly Meeting of the Society was held at the Society’s House, No. 5 Hlizabeth-street North, on Wednesday evening, July 4th, 1900. The President, Prof. LivERSIDGE, M.A., LL.D., F.R.8., in the Chair, About seventy members and visitors were present. The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. Messrs. H. E. Barffand R. R. Garran were appointed Scrutineers, and Dr. H. G. A. Wright deputed to preside at the Ballot Box. The certificates of four candidates were read for the third time, and of two for the second time. The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary members of the Society :— Helms, Richard, Experimentalist, Department of Agriculture. Jarman, A., A.R.s.M., Demonstrator, University of Sydney. Stewart, James Douglas, mM.R.c.v.s. Hdin.; Cowper-street, Randwick, Turner, Basil William, 4.R.8.M., F.c.s., Lecturer in Metallurgy, ° University of Sydney ; 14 Castlereagh-street. The meeting then resolved itself into an informal Conversazione and Smoke evening. THE FOLLOWING EXHIBITS WERE SHEWN :— Baker, R. T., F.u.s.—l. Model of Chinese Lady’s foot. 2. Edible birds’ nests from North Borneo. 3. Models of edible fishes. Brucz, J. L.—1. Pipe illustrating galvanic action of hot Sydney water on lead pipe. The pipe formed part of a hot-water pipe circulation, having a wrought-iron boiler at one end, a copper cylinder at the other end. 2. Examples of lead pipe destroyed by galvanic action in cold-water cisterns, Sydney water. The couple was constituted by contact of a copper cylinder or cistern and the lead pipe, under the ordinary Sydney water. 3. Example of cast- iron pipe from Hunter River District water supply, effect of XX. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. galvanic action. 4. Exhibits shewing importance of good sanitary plumbing, also of defective work. Buraes, C. O., M. Inst. c#.—1. Breeches Bible. The Genevan edition of 1560. Tyndale’s translation ; illustrated. 2. Ricaut’s Greek Church 1679. 3. Bossuet’s History of the World 1686. 4, Lord Bacon’s Advancement of Learning ; edition of 1633. Daruey, ©. W., M. Inst. C.E.— Model of suction dredge ‘‘Antleon” for working without moorings on a rough bar. Davin, Prof. T. W. E., B.a., F.4.s.—Microscopes shewing some N.S. Wales Internal Parasites: —1. The common liver fluke (sheep) Distomum hepaticum, Abildg. 2. The lanceolate fluke Distomum lanceolatum, Mehlis, from bile-ducts of sheep. 3. Holostomum sp. from Gull. 4. Ls. Holostomum sp. from Gull. 5. Holostomum sp. from Jackass. 6. 1T.s. and L.s. Holostomum sp. from Jackass. Hatuiaan, G. H., F.c.s.—Miscellaneous articles fished up by special apparatus from the Bore at Trangie, diameter 74 inches, depth of 570 feet. Hamuet, W. M., F.c.s., F.1.c.—New patent dirt-box for private ’ dwelling house. Hararave, L.—1l. Winch for flying cellular kites in tandem with wire. 2. Three kites. 3. Clamps and tension spring balance. 4. Snatch block. On December 4, 1899, two of the kites attained a height of 484 yards: 7.¢e., more than five times as high as the truck on the Post Office flagstaffi There were 500 yards of wire and 100 yards of string out on this occasion. The angle of elevation was 50° 45’. Pull on the wire 20 ibs. max. Surface wind velocity 12 to 15 miles; pressure ‘7 to 1:1 ibs. Line 2:4 miils. diam. B.S. 75 tbs. 100 yards weigh ? Ibs) Wire 20 g. 1:0 mills. diam. B.S. 140 ibs. 100 yards weigh 1 fb. 500 yards wire equal 4°93 sq. ft. section ; 100 yards string equal 2°36 sq. ft. section. Total 7°29 sq. ft. of string and wire pushing downward. The kites are of the latest pattern, specially made for tandem flying and high wind velocities. Lifting surface of each kite, 25 square feet. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XX1. Haswett, Prof. W. A., M.A., DSc, F.R.S.—l. Caryophylleopsis an unsegmented Tape-worm from the intestine of the Port Jackson shark. 2. Stratiodrilus a new primitive worm found among the gills of Tasmanian crayfishes, and regarded as intermediate between the Wheel-Animalcules or Rotifera and the ringed-worms such as Earthworms. 3. Museum microscope, so constructed as to admit of a series of slides being shewn, without microscope being exposed. — Jounston, S. J., B.A —Microscopical sections of hzmatode worms from sheep and birds. LIVERSIDGE, Prof., M.A., LL.D, F.RS.—1l. Photo-micrometer. 2. Tous-les-mois starch. 3. Gold crystals from potassium cyanide solutions. 4. Colour of gold by transmitted light. 5. Spectrum of Didymium glass. 6. Photo-spectrometer. Marpewn, Dr. Joun, m.A.—Microscope and series of slides shew- ing objects of interest. Pottock, Prof., B.E., B.Sc.—l. Boomerang made by G. T. Walker Esq., M.A, B.Sc., Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, author of paper on ‘ Boomerangs’ in Phil. Trans. Vol. 109a, pp. 23-41, 1897. 2. Photograph of a falling drop of water by Lord Rayleigh. Portus, A. P., Assoc. M. Inst.c.E.—1. Album of views of Old Sydney. 2. Photograph of first steamer built in Australia “William IV.” (Old Billy) [afterwards lengthened]. Built in 1831 by Marshall and Lowe, Williams River, employed at coast- ing work for thirty years, then sent to trade at China, 3. Photo- graph of the ‘‘Rose” pioneer steamer of the A.S.N. Co., then called Hunter River 8. N. Co. Length 150 feet, beam 20 feet, engines 100 H.P., side lever; pressure 7 ibs. per square inch ; boilers flue type. Speed 11 miles per hour. The “Rose” arrived in Sydney in April 1841, and was the first iron ocean steamer imported. | QUAIFE, F. H., u.a., M.p.—1. ‘Electrical Movement in Air and Water with Theoretical Inferences’ and supplement, by Lord Armstrong, C.B., F.R.S. 2. Optical experiments, XXi1l. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Ronapson, J. H.—Chinese painting of the Palace at Pekin. RusseEtL, H. C.,8.4., 6.M.G., F.R.S.—l. Diagram of seismographic apparatus to be erected at the Sydney Observatory. 2. Books containing valuable astronomical and meteorological plates (coloured.) SmitH, Henry G., r.c.s.—A collection of twenty-five specimens of the principal constituents found in essential oils, including aromatic alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, esters, etc. (Schimmel & Co.) STEEL, Dr. Jonn—1. ‘A Right Profitable Booke for all Diseases called The Path-way to Health,’ by Peter Leuens, London 1632. 2. Old Latin Dictionary. TAYLOR, JAMES, B.Sc., A.R.S.M.— Hardened Steel welded under pressure in the cold, (vide Journ. Iron and Steel Inst., No. 1, 1885, pp. 29 and 30.) TipsweELL, Dr. FRANK, D.P.H. Camb.—1. Specimens illustrating the preservation of colour in Museum preparations, Formalin process. 2. A case of Snake “ Cannibalism.” WALKER, J. T.—1. ‘Sketches of Sheep’ drawn by Sir Edwin Landseer, R.A., when a boy eight years old, 1810. 2. ‘Dog’s Head’ by Sir Edwin Landseer, R.A., when fourteen years of age, 1816. 3. ‘The Well of Haran,’ (Jacob and Rachel), engraving by Martin Hemskirk, celebrated Dutch Engraver, 1541 (?) or 1549. 4. ‘Hindoo and Mohammedan Buildings,’ engraving printed in oil colours, 1835. 5. ‘Royal Grant,’ dated 11th March, 1608, of agricultural lands at Coldingham, known as West Reston, in fen- farm for ever ; bearing the Great Seal of King James ]. Wricut, H. G. A., M.R.c.s., E—Microscopic slides of Plague bacillus. The following donations were laid upon the table and acknow- ledged :— : TRANSACTIONS, JOURNALS, REPORTS, &c. (The Names of the Donors are in Italics ) Lonpon—Chemical News, Vol. uxxx1., Nos. 2105 — 2118,1900; Vol. LxxxiI., Nos. 2119 - 2121, 1900. The Editor Electrical Engineer, Old Series, Vol. xxx1., New Series, Vol. xxv., Nos. 10—26, 1900; Old Series Vol. xxx1., New Series Vol. xxv1., Nos. 1-4, 1900. as ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXili. Lonpon—Geological Society. Geological Literature added to the Society's Library during the year ended 31 Dec., 1899, No. 6. Quarterly Journal, Vol. tv1., Part ii., No. 222, 1900. The Society Imperial Institute. Journal, Vol. v1., Nos. 63 — 67, 1900. The Institute Institute of Chemistry of Great Britain and Ireland. Pro- ceedings, Parti.,1900. Register of Fellows, Associates, and Students 1900-1901. Institution of Civil Engineers. Minutes of Proceedings, Vol. cxxxix., Part i., 1899-1900. The Institution Institution of Mechanical Engineers. Proceedings, No. 4, 1899. List of Members, Feb. 1900, Articles and By-Laws. Linnean Society. Journal, Botany, Vol. xxxtv., No. 240, 1900. Zoology, Vol. xxvit., No. 178, 1900. The Society Meteorological Office. Meteorological Observations at Sta- tions of the Second Order for the year 1896, (Official No. 139). The Office Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain. Pharmaceutical Journal, Fourth Series, Vol. x., Nos. 1551 - 1568, 1565 — ° 1570, 1900. The Society Physical Society of London. Proceedings, Vol. xvi1., Parts 1., 11., 1900. List of Officers and Fellows, April 1, 1900. Science Abstracts, Vol. 111., Parts ili. — vii., Nos. 27 - 30, 39 3° 1900. » Quekett Microscopical Club. Journal, Series 2, Vol. vit., No. 46, 1900. The Club Royal Agricultural Society of England. Journal, Ser. 3, Vol. x1., Parts i1., 11, Nos. 41, 42, 1900. The Society Royal Astronomical Society. Monthly Notices, Vol. ux., Nos. 4-9, 1900. Roya! College of Physicians. List of Fellows, Members, 33 Extra Licentiates and Licentiates, 1900. The College Royal Geographical Society. The Geographical Journal, Vol. xv., Nos. 3-6, 1900; Vol. xv1., No. 1, 1900. The Society Royal Institution of Great Britain. Proceedings, Vol. xv., Part 11., No. 91, 1898. The Institution Royal Microscopical Society. Journal, Parts ii., ii., Nos. 135, 136, 1900. The Society Royal Society. Philosophical Transactions, Vol. cxcr., Series B, 1899; Vol. cxcrr., Series A, 1899; Vol. cxcitz., Series A. 1900. Proceedings, Vol. txv., No. 422; Vol. Lxv1., Nos. 424-432, 1900. Reports to the Malaria Committee, 1899-1900. Royal Society of Literature. Transactions, Series 2, Vol. xxI., Part iii., and List of Fellows, 1900. Royal United Service Institution. Journal, Vol. xutv., Nos. 263 — 266, 1900. The Institution Sanitary Institute. Journal, Vol. xx1., Partsi., ii.,1900. The Institute Society of Arts. Journal, Vol. xtviir., Nos. 2470 -2488, 1900. The Society Zoological Society of London. Proceedings, Part iv., 1899; Part i., 1900. 39 33 XXIV. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. MancHester—Conchological Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Journal of Conchology, Vol. 1x., Nos. 8, 10,11, 1900. The Society Manchester Geological Society. Transactions, Vol. xxvt., Part xiii., Sessions 1899-1900. Fi Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society. Memoirs and Proceedings, Vol. xuiv., Parts i1., ili., 1899-1900. * Mir¥rirLp— Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic Society. Pro- ceedings, N.S. Vol. x11., Part 11., 1897. se NeEwcastTiE-vpon-Tyne— Natural History Society of Northum- berland, Durham and Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Trans- actions, Vol. x11i., Part 111., 1900. KA North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers. ‘Transactions, Vol. xuviit., Parts v., vi., and Annual Report of the Council; Vol. xurx., Parts i., ii., 1899-1900. The Institute New Yorx—American Geographical Society. Builetin, Vol. xxxi., No. 5, 1899; Vol. xxx11., Nos. 1 - 2, 1900. The Society American Institute of Electrical Engineers. Transactions, Vol. xv1., Nos. 11, 12, 1899; Vol. xvir., Nos. 1, 2, 1900. The Institute American Museum of Natural History. Bulletin, Vol. xr., Part 11., 1899. The Museum Columbia University. The School of Mines Quarterly, Vol. xx1., Nos. 2, 3, 1900. ~ The School New York Academy of Sciences. Memoirs, Vol. 11., Parti., 1899. The Academy The Mineral Industry, Vols. 1. - virr., 1892 — 1900. Richard P. Rothwell, Editor Paris—Académie des Sciences de l'Institut de France. Comptes Rendus, Tome cxx1x., Nos. 16 - 26, 1899; Tome cxxx., No_ 1, 1900. The Academy Ecole d’ Anthropologie de Paris. Revue Mensuelle, Année 1x., Nos. 10-12, 1899. The Director PENZANCE—Royal Geological Society of Cornwall. Transactions, Vol. x1r., Part v., 1900. The Society PHILADELPHIA—Academy of Natural Sciences. Catalogue of Duplicate Books and Pamphlets in the Library. Pro- ceedings, Parts ii. and iii., 1899. The Academy American Philosophical Society. Proceedings, Vol. xxxvui1., No. 160, 1899. The Society Franklin Institute. Journal, Vol. cxurx., Nos. 3-6; Vol. cu., No. 1. ~The Institute University of Pennsylvania. University Bulletin, Vol. rv., Nos. 3-6, 1899-1900. The University Zoological Society. Annual Report (28th) of the Board of Directors, 26 April, 1900. The Society PiLymoutH—Plymouth Institution and Devon and Cornwall Natural History Society. Annual Report and Trans- actions, Vol. x111., Part 1., 1898-99. ” ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXV. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, AUGUST 8, 1900. The General Monthly Meeting of the Society was held at the Society's House, No. 5 Elizabeth-street North, on Wednesday evening, August 8th, 1900. The President, Prof. LivERSIDGE, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., in the Chair. About thirty members and visitors were present. The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. Messrs. T. H. Houghton and R. T. Baker were appointed Scrutineers, and Mr. W. M. Hamlet deputed to preside at the Ballot Box. The certificates of two candidates were read for the third time, and of four for the first time. The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary members of the Society :— Gray, J. G., Grazier, “Kentucky,” Corowa. Hadley, A., F.c.s., Brewer, Standard Brewery, Sydney. The President announced that the Third Science Lecture of the Royal Society of New South Wales’ series for 1900, viz., “ A study of the Mechanics of the Human-Frame work,” by Professor T. P. ANDERSON STUART, M.D., LL.D., etc., Professor of Physiology, University of Sydney, would be given in the Royal Society’s House on the 22nd instant. THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ :— 1. “Notes on Rack Railways,” by C. O. Bures, M. Inst. C.E. The author, after adverting to the early efforts which were made to make use of a rack and cog-wheel to enable excessively steep railway inclines to be surmounted by an engine with its load, pointed out how, from a line of iron plates laid along a com- mon road in order to diminish friction, the modern railway was developed. It brought with it, however, the drawback of want of adhesion owing to the smooth surface of the metal when the weight of the load to be drawn bears an undue proportion to that on the driving wheels of the engine, thus causing slipping of the XXVl. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. wheels, there being no purchase or bite, to enable the power applied to take effect. This is counteracted by sanding the rail, thus increasing the angle of friction, but this has its limit, and when the traction due to the load, enhanced by gravity on a very steep grade, is excessive, the purchase on the road by the wheel must be obtained by some device in the nature of a rack and pinion. After some early attempts, the rack and pinion system invented by Abt, seems to have found the most favour, and about one hundred rack lines on this and other systems in various parts of the world, including some of the Australian Colonies, have been successfully worked. The author then proceeded to describe the Abt construction as. generally consisting of two or more rack bars, laid centrally and vertically between the ordinary bearing rails, the rack being engaged with corresponding pinions driven by special cylinders inside the engine, the ordinary adhesion driving wheels being actuated by separate outside cylinders. The advantage of dupli- cating or triplicating the rack bars, being not only to give increased purchase, but to furnish a reserve of holding power in the event of one set breaking. The Nilgiri Hills, metre gauge, rack railway in India, was then described as well as the engines in use, and their performances; also the permanent way and rack for standard gauge with three rack bars, which had been suggested by the Abt Company for a steep incline now under survey in this colony. Some other lines were referred to, more or less fully, and also the Staub rack system, which differs from the Abt, and which, for special reasons given, has been adopted for the Jungfrau electric rack line, in Switzerland. The grades dealt with by the rack seldom exceed that of the Jungfrau, which is 1 in 4, though there isa 1 in 2 line also in Switzerland, on what is called the Lochar system, which was. described. Except in special instances of light passenger traffic, 1 in 123 should not be generally exceeded, this grade being the steepest which could be surmounted by an ordinary adhesion engine, with no load behind it, hence any steeper grade would ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXVI1l, prevent free passage for locomotive stock between the railway systems, connected by the rack. And there is also the greater special precautions as to brakes ete., which would be required. When grades are easier than about 1 in 25, the difficulties of want of adhesion diminish so much, that the extra complication of the rack makes its adoption of doubtful advantage. The question of the easy entry of the engine into the rack, of vertical curves, of special care in construction and maintenance, of points and cross- ings, of brakes, of precautions against creeping, of disadvantages of sharp curvature, of safety sidings, and of speed are fully discussed. Two systems of working have been applied to lines of which a rack length forms a part, that of having one or more special engines to work the rack part only, and that of having combined rack and adhesion engines working the whole or neighbouring systems, using the pinions only on the rack division, and the rela- tive advantages and otherwise of these are entered into. In many cases the alternative presents itself of adopting for the ascent of a given height, a comparatively long but easily graded adhesion line, or a short and steep rack one, this being the phase of the question which only, up to the present, has had to be con- sidered in this colony. These alternatives are carefully discussed in the paper, the author deprecating the frequent practice, in published papers and discussions, of comparing results from trials of various rival systems, in all branches of engineering, under totally different conditions, and made in different localities, as wholly misleading, not only on that account, but because generally omitting the personal element, on which so much of success or failure depends. The author comes to the conclusion that as a rule, if the same load has to be lifted the same height, in the same time, on two such lines, the working expenses cannot greatly differ, as the mechanical effort is the same, and items of working expenses not affected by this tend to neutralize one another, the greater length of the one line going against the extra repairs, mile for mile, of the other. Hence the relative cost of construc- tion must be the main guiding factor. XXVII1. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. The paper concludes with an extract from a recent report by an Italian Commission to the Public Works Department of the Government of Italy, which is generally favourable to the rack rather than the adhesion principle in alternatives such as that referred to, and stating its suitability to many localities and cir- cumstances in that country. 2. “On the damage done to the Seal Rocks Lighthouse by light- ning on July 10th,” by C. W. DaRLEy, M. Inst. CE. Mr. C. W. Darley said that the lighthouse tower was fitted with a solid copper lightning conductor extending half round, and was attached at the top to the copper roof of the lantern. The electric fluid evidently entered the vane on top of the lantern dome, the end being bent and fused, and thence passed down the lightning rod. A portion of the current was communicated to the electric bell wires on the middle floor. These wires led to the principal and assistant light-keepers’ quarters, and were laid underground in a 1 in. iron pipe for a distance of 300 ft. The current had tried to make earth at three places, for the pipe was burst. and the earth above blown away. The wires led up the verandah posts, and the wooden casing had been torn off and split into fragments. A piece of sheet iron had been blown off and thrown with such force that it cut a passage through a pailing fence six feet away. The iron ceiling and staircase must have been thoroughly charged, for numerous spots appeared where the paint had been blown off and the bare iron underneath was fused. The iron ceiling under this floor was fastened with screws, and the heads of several had been blown off. One piece of stout zinc was blown for a distance of forty feet, and the lids of the oil tanks were blown off and destroyed. The concrete flooring was alsodamaged. He thought the whole cause of the damage was due to the lightning conductor not making an efficient earth connection. [In conclusion the author said that a lesson to be learnt from this occurrence was the necessity for insulating the bell wires. Some exhibits were shown by the author, and they added a . good deal of interest to his paper. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XxX1xX ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, SEPTEMBER 5, 1900. The General Monthly Meeting of the Society was held at the Society’s House, No. 5 Elizabeth-street North, on Wednesday evening, September 5th, 1900. The President, Prof. LiversipG#, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., in the Chair. Thirty members and four visitors were present. The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. The certificates of four candidates were read for the second time, and of three for the first time. The President made the following announcements, viz.:— 1. That the Fourth Science Lecture of the Royal Society of New South Wales’ series for 1900, “‘On the Building of the Aus- tralian Continent,” by Professor T. W. EpcrworrH Davin, B.A., F.G.S., F.R.S., Professor of Geology, University of Sydney, would be given in the Society’s House, on Thursday, Sep- tember 27th. | 2. That the Fifth Lecture on “Some phases of Mammalian Development,” would be given by Professor WiLson, with Lantern Illustrations. 3. That a Conversazione would be held in March 1901. 7 4. That an Annual Dinner would take place in April 1901. THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ :— 1. “The Language, Weapons, and Manufactures of the Aborigines of Port Stephens, New South Wales,” with two plates, by W.J. ENRIGHT, B.A., (Communicated by R. H. Maruews, L.s., Corres. Memb. Soc. d’Anthrop. de Paris). This paper furnished a grammar and comprehensive vocabulary of the language of the Kutthung, one of a number of tribes inhabiting the country around Port Stephens and the Karuah River, New South Wales. Two large plates accompanied the article, containing photographs of the weapons, utensils, etc., in use among the natives of the district dealt with. Mr. R. H. XXX. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Mathews, who communicated the paper, remarked that it afforded him peculiar gratification to have the opportunity of bringing before the Society the labours of other investigators in the wide but little known field of Australian anthropology. 2. “The past droughts and recent flood at Lake George,” by H. C. RUSSELL, B.A., C.M.G., F.R.& It was shewn that at the end of 1874 Lake George was at its maximum depth during the past seventy years, the depth then being 24 ft.; from that date the water gradually decreased, rising sometimes during heavy rains, and on 25th February, 1877, the water was only 10 ft. 9in. deep. At this time the author put up an automatic gauge, which recorded every change until it became too low for the machine to work, and exact measures were then carried on by hand. Meantime the level varied with the seasons, until in 1890, a very wet year, the lake was 12 ft. 11 in. deep ; and after this the lake level fell faster than ever recorded before, and on March 28th, 1900, the depth was only 0 ft. 10 in., a fall of 12 ft. 1 in. in six years. During 1895 the evaporation was most rapid, the hot and windy weather carried the water away, not only by evaporation but also as spray into the forest, and the total loss of water in that year was 5 ft.4in. A loss of water which can I think only be accounted for by the great heat and force of the wind, which carried away great quantities of water as spray. As proof that it was not due to percolation, 1 may mention that, at my request, very careful observations were made during the recent rise, when there were great fissures in the mud which proved the dryness. As the water rose it was carefully watched to see if it was percolating, and during the first day, about one inch only was lost, and no further loss from that cause could be discovered. 3. * Note on an Obsidian ‘ Bomb,’” by R. T. Baker, F.u.s., Curator Technological Museum, Sydney. The specimen described in this note is not quite perfect—a portion having been broken off when it was discovered. It has a form quite unusual to those previously recorded from Hastern ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXX1. Australia, but resembles those from Western Australia and the interior of the continent. Itis not unlike one found in Tasmania in 1897. It is sub-globose in shape, the surface being much indented with air pores and globulites ; it has a very dark green or almost black, glassy appearance, and measures | in. in diameter, and 2 in. in thickness, and has a specific gravity of 2-456 at 15°C. It was found at O’Connell near Bathurst, by Messrs. A. Walkes and Lester, some feet below the surface, whilst sinking for gold. Much attention at the present time is being given by scientists in Europe in regard to the origin of these bombs, a fact which adds to the interest of this find. 4. Demonstrations by W. Camac WILKINSON, B.A., M.D. Lond., M.R.C.P., Lecturer on Pathology, University of Sydney. i. Demonstration of Influenza bacillus, with exhibts. ii. Demonstration of new method of staining flagella of bacteria, with exhibits. The following donations were laid upon the table and acknow- ledged :— TRANSACTIONS, JOURNALS, REPORTS, &c. (The Names of the Donors are in Italics.) Rocuester, N.Y.—Geological Society of America. Bulletin, Vol. x., 1899. The Society San Francisco— California Academy of Sciences. Occasional Papers, Vol. vi., 1899. Proceedings, Third Series, Botany, Vol. 1., Nos. 6-9; Geology, Vol.1., Nos. 5, 6, Zoology, Vol. 1., Nos. 11, 12, 1899. The Academy ‘ScRANTON—Colliery Engineer Co. Mines and Minerals, Vol. xx., Nos. 3-5, 1899; Nos.6-11,1900. The Colliery Engineer Co. St. Lours—Missouri Botanic Garden. Annual Report (11th) 1900. The Director StockHoum—Kongl. Svenska Vetenskaps Akademiens. Hand- lingar, Band xxxiI., 1899-1900. The Academy Stutreart—Konigliches Statistisches Landesamt. Wurttem- bergische Jahrbiicher fiir Statistik und Landeskunde, Jahrgang 1899, Teil 1. | The ‘Landesamt’ Sypney—Department of Agriculture. Agricultural Gazette of N: S. Wales, Vol, x., barb xai.,.1899); Wol, xr., Parts 1., 11., 1900. The Department Institution of Surveyors, N.S. Wales. The Surveyor, Voi. mk, NO.'2, 1899; Viol. xam,, Nos. 1, 2: 1900: The Institution 56:0 ik ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. | SypnEY—continued. The Colonial Treasurer. History of New South Wales, Vols. I., 11.; Historical Records of New South Wales, Vols. I. — VI. Government Printer. Urpana, I1].—Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History. Bulletin of the Illinois Museum of Natural History, No. 1, 1876. Bulletin, Index to Vol. 1., (Bulletins 1 - 6). Bulletins—Vol. 11., Nos. 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 1886-1890; Vol. 111., Nos. 1 — 15,1887 —1895; Vol.1v., Nos. 1-8, 10, 1892 - 1897; Vol. v., Nos. 3-7, 1897-1899. Bulletin No. 2 1878, Vol. v., Art. 10, 11, 1900. The State Laboratory WasHineton—American Historical Association. Annual Report for the year 1898. The Association Commissioner of Education. Report for the year 1897-98, Vols. 1. and II. Lhe Commissioner Department of Agriculture. Crop Circulars for November 1899. Crop Reporter, Vol. 1., Nos. 1, 2, 3, 1900. Division of Biological Survey: Bulletin No. 12, 1900. Division of Botany: Bulletin Nos. 22, 24, 1899-1900. Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology: Bul- letin Nos. 16—19, 1899-1900. Monthly Weather Review, Vol. xxvi1., Nos. 8-12, and Annual Summary for 1899; Vol. xxvir., Nos. 1— 3, 1900; Bulletin F., Report on the Kite Observations of 1898. North American Fauna: No. 17, 1900. Office of Experiment Stations: Bulletin, Nos. 58, 60, 70,73, 1899. Year Book, 1898, 1899. The Department Department of the Interior. Report of the Secretary for the Fiscal year ended June 30, 1896, Vols. 1.—111.;- Vol. 1., 1897. Report of the Commissioner of the General Land Office, 1897. Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, 1897. Miscellaneous Reports. os National Academy of Sciences. Memoirs, Vol. viir., No. 1, 1896; No. 4, 1899. Proceedings, Vol. 1., 1877. The Academy Navy Department— Office of Naval Intelligence. Coaling, Docking, and Repairing Facilities of the Ports of the World, with analyses of different kinds of coal (Fourth Edition) 1900. Notes on Naval Progress, November 1899. ‘The Spanish-American War, War Notes, Nos. 6, 7, 1899. ‘The Squadron of Admiral Cervera by Capt. Victor M. Concas y Palau, 1900. The Department Surgeon-General, U.S. Navy. Annual Report 1899. The Surgeon General Smithsonian Institution. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Col- lections, Vol. xu1., No. 1178. Index to the Literature of Zirconium by A. C. Langmuir, Ph.D. and Charles Baskerville, Ph. D., 1899. The Institution U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Bulletin, No. 40, Second Edition, 1900. The Survey U.S. Geological Survey. Annual Report (19th) 1897-8, Parts ilii., v.. and Atlas; (20th) 1898-9, Partsi., vi. and vi. continued. _ | U.S. Hydrographic Office. Notices to Mariners, Nos. 43, 44, and Index 1899; Nos. 1— 20, 1900. The Office- ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXX, ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, OCTOBER 38, 1900. The General Monthly Meeting of the Society was held at the Society’s House, No. 5 Elizabeth-street North, on Wednesday evening, October 3rd, 1900. The President, Prof. LIVERSIDGE, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., in the Chair. Twenty-four members were present. The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. Mr. L. Whitfeld and His Honor Judge Docker were appointed Scrutineers, and Dr. F. H. Quaife deputed to preside at the Ballot Box. The certificates of four candidates were read for the third time, and of three for the second time. The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary members of the Society :— Canty, M., Registrar, Land Tax Department; 13 York-st. Flashman, James Froude, Doctor of Medicine; ‘Totnes,’ Temple-street, Petersham. Ralston, John Thompson, Solicitor ; 86 Pitt-street. Simpson, Richard Christopher, Demonstrator of Physics ; Physics Department, Sydney University. The President announced that the Fifth Science Lecture of the Royal Society of New South Wales’ series for 1900, viz., “Some phases of Mammalian Development” by J. T. WI1LSoN, M.B., Ch.M. Edin., Professor of Anatomy, University of Sydney, would be given in the Royal Society’s House on the 17th instant. THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ :— 1. “Marriage and Descent among the Australian Aborigines,” by R. H. Matruews, t.s., Corres. Memb. Anthrop. Soc., Wash- ington, U.S.A. In this short paper the author dealt with the social laws of some tribes in New South Wales, Queensland, and elsewhere. Tables and genealogies were supplied illustrating the marriage restrictions, c—Oct. 3, 1900. XXXIV. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. and the descent of the resulting progeny. A brief description was given of certain inaugural ceremonies through which the youths have to graduate in order to reach the status of aboriginal manhood. Bull-roarers and message sticks were also dealt with, and a cursory reference made to infanticide, abortion, and car- nibalism—customs still practised in some districts where the natives are in a comparatively wild state. 2. ‘On the constituent of peppermint odour occurring in many Eucalyptus oils—Part I.,” by Henry G. Smirn, F.c.s., Assistant Curator, Technological Museum, Sydney. The first Eucalyptus oil was distilled by Dr. White in 1788, at Sydney, and owing to the great resemblance between this oil and that obtained from the peppermint, Mentha piperita, he named the tree from which he had obtained the oil the ‘‘ Peppermint Tree.” Its botanical name is Hucalyptus pyperrta. Since then many other species of Eucalyptus have been found to have this peppermint odour, and are generally known as “peppermints.” The con- stituent giving this odour has now been isolated. It occurs in greatest amount in the oil obtained from the leaves of Z. dives, next in that of #. radiata, and in fair amount in the oils of several _ other species. It is usually found in those Eucalyptus oils in which the principal terpene is phellandrene, although this is not always so, but generally there is an almost entire absence of Kucalyptol in those oils in which it occurs most abundantly. The crude oil of #. dives was taken for the preparation of this pepper- mint constituent. The oil of this species has a specific gravity ranging from 0°882 to 0°888 at 15° C., and its optical rotation varies from — 55:7 to —63°9 in 100 mm. tube; 20 per cent. of a sample of this oil distilled between 227° and 240°, this portion contains the peppermint constituent, as thus obtained it had a specific gravity 0°9318 at 15° C., and its rotation was — 9-4°. For commercial purposes it may be steam distilled, that is, if it is found to be of special value. The peppermint constituent was removed from the fraction 227°—240° by agitating frequently ° for about three weeks with a concentrated solution of sodium ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXKV. bisulphite. The combination does not readily take place. The aqueous portion, treating with caustic soda solution, separates an oil which was afterwards steam distilled. As thus obtained it is almost colourless, and has a very strong taste of peppermint, and an odour of peppermint which becomes more marked on diffusion. Its specific gravity was 0:9393 at +2°€ and it boiled at 224 — 225° C. Its rotation was 0:35" to the left, but probably the constituent itself is inactive as a small portion of an aldehyde having left rotation was detected. On reduction with metallic sodium in alcoholic solution, a crystalline substance was obtained which was but slightly soluble in alcohol and in ether, but exceed- ingly soluble in chloroform; it melted at 155°-—156° C. and erystallises in oblique prisms which polarise very well. This peppermint constituent is not menthone, and is probably a new ketone, a molecular determination gave 155, so that probably its formula may eventually be found to be C,,H,,0. The second part of the paper will deal with its chemical reactions and peculiarities. 3. On the crystalline structure of gold nuggets from Klondyke, Victoria and New Zealand,” by Professor LIVERSIDGE, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. Sections of three nuggets from Klondyke were shown. The crystal faces are comparatively small, and the nuggets have a granular structure, as if built up of separate grains, of one or two millimetres in diameter. They are also more fissured and contain more cavities than usual. The sections of Victorian (Australian) and New Zealand nuggets are also made up of small crystals, and they present numerous small cavities after the removal of the quartz and iron oxide by treatment with hydrofluoric and hydro- chloric acids, so that the sections present quite a different appear- ance to the very compact and largely crystallised nuggets from West Australia. The following donations were laid upon the table and acknow_ ledged :-— 1 See Journ. Roy. Soc. N. S. Wales, 1896. XXXVI. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. TRANSACTIONS, JOURNALS, REPORTS, &e. (The Names of the Donors are in Italics ) AacHEN—Meteorologische Station I. Ordnung. Deutches Meteo- rologisches Jahrbuch fir 1898, aia 1v. EHrgeb- - nisse der 1899. Reprints etc. (3) The Director ADELAIDE—Department of Mines. Record of the Mines of South Australia :—Report on the Gold Discovery: at Tarcoola by H. Y. L. Brown, Fa.s., 1900. The Department Public Library, Museum, and wh Gallery of South Australia. Report of the Board of Governors for 1898-9. The Board Royal Society of South Australia. Memoirs, Vol. 1., Part ii., 1900. Transactions, Vol. xx1., Part ii., 1899; Vol. xxiv., Part 1:, 1900. The Society Agram—Kr. Hrv.-Slav.-Dalm. Zem. Arkiva. Vjestnik, Godina 11., Svezak. 1, 3, 4, 1900. Nove Serije Sveska rv., 1899- 1900. e A.LBANY—New York State Library. University of the State of New York—College Department, Second Annual Report 1899, Vol. 11. Professional Education in the United States. The University AMsSTERDAM—Académie Royale des Sciences. Jaarboek, 1898. Proceedings of tho Section of Sciences, Vol. 1., 1899. Verslag van de Gewone Vergaderingen der Wis- en Natuurkundige, Adfeeling van 28 Mei 1898 tot 22 April 1899. Werhandelingen (Eerste Sectie) Deel v1., Nos. 6, 7,1899; (‘T'weede Sectie) Deel v1., Nos.3 — 8, 1899. The Academy BautTiIMorE—Johns Hopkins University. American Chemical Journal, Vol. xx1., No. 6; xx1r., Nos 1-6, 1899; Vol. xxit., Nos. 1-38, 1900. American Journal of Mathe- matics, Vol, xx1., Nos.3,4, 1899; Vol. xx11., No. 1, 1900. American Journal of Philology, Vol. xx., Nos. 1-4, Circulars, Vol. x1x., Nos. 142, 143, 1899, 1900. Studies in Historical and Political Science, Vol. xvi1., Nos. 6 - to 12, 1899; Vol. xvirr., Nos. 1 — 4, 1900. The University Maryland Geological Survey. Maryland Weather Service, Vol. 1., 1899. Report, Vol. 117. 1899. The Survey Batavia—Dept. de VInstruction Publique, des Cultes et de V’ Industrie aux Indes Neerlandaises. Kort Verslag over de Aardbeving te Soekaboemi (Preanger-Regentschappen) op 14 Januari 1900 door Dr. R. D. M. Verbeek. Kert Verslag over de Aaard-en Zeebeving op Ceram den 30 Sept. 1899 door Dr. R. D. M. Verbeek. Voorloopig Verslag over eene Geologische Reis door het Oostelijk Gedeelte van den Indischen Archipel in 1899 door Dr. R. D. M. Verbeek. The Director Koninklijke Natuurkundige Vereeniging in Nederl-Indié. Natuurkundig Tijdschrift, Deel t1x., 1900. The Society BerceN—Museums. Aarbog 1899. An account of the Crustacea of Norway by G. O. Sars, Vol. 111., Cumacea, Parts 1. — vili., 1899-1900. ‘The Museum BreRNE—Départment de l’Interieur de la Confédération Suisse- Section des Travaux Publics. Bassin du Rhéne depuis ses sources jusqu’ au lac Léman, 1898. The Department ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXXVII, ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, NOVEMBER 7, 1900. The General Monthly Meeting of the Society was held at the Society’s House, No. 5 Elizabeth-street North, on Wednesday evening, November 7th, 1900. The President, Prof. LivERSIDGE, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., in the Chair. Thirty members were present. The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed, Messrs. R. T. Baker and W. R. George were appointed Scrutineers, and Dr. H. G. A. Wright deputed to preside at the Ballot Box. The certificates of three candidates were read for the third time, and of two for the first time. The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary members of the Society :— Bale, Ernest, Civil Engineer, Public Works Department. Hawkins, William Edward, Solicitor, 88 Pitt-street. MacTaggart, Archibald H., Doctor of Dental Surgery, Phil. U.S.A., King and Phillip-streets. THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ :— 1. ‘*Current Papers, No. 5,” by H. C. RussE., B.A., C.M.G., F.R.S. This paper includes the records of one hundred and eight cur- rent papers collected during the past thirteen months. The total number of papers recorded in the whole series is now six hundred and two; these have been published in the Royal Society’s Pro- ceedings. At this stage it is worth while to see what important results have been attained. Beginning then in the Indian Ocean it is found that north of the Equator current papers drift to the eastward, but the number of papers found is too small to deter- mine the rate of drift. From the Equator to latitude 10° south, current papers drift easterly on to equatorial Africa ; five papers in this area made an average drift of 13:3 miles perday. Taking the next section, that is, from 10° south to 23° south, the average daily rate derived from eleven papers is 16°5 miles, From 23° XXXVIIl. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. south to 33° south, no papers have been found drifting westerly or easterly, except a few papers put afloat close to Australia, and they as usual went ashore. In the next area, 7.¢., between 33° south and 43° south, in the Indian Ocean, the current papers drift easterly, or more accurately east-north-east ; twenty-one long distance papers in this area give an average daily drift of 7:6 miles. In the next section, z.¢., 43° south to 50° south, twenty current papers shew a daily easterly drift of 9-4 miles. Tabulating the dates at which current papers are found, it appears, that the smallest number of current papers came ashore at the times of the Equinoxes (March and September) and the greatest number received in one month of each year is:—May 1897, ten papers ; October 1898, twelve papers; August 1899, fourteen papers ; and February 1900, fourteen papers. 2. “The Sun’s Motion in Space.”—Part I., History and Biblio- graphy, by G. H. Kwipss, F.r.a.s., Lecturer in Surveying, University of Sydney. Apart from its intrinsic interest, the determination of the direction and quantity of the Sun’s motion in space is of impor- tance, as the condition of further progress in developing a satis- factory system of defining the places of stars. The establishment of such fixed planes of reference as will be unaffected by the relative or absolute motions of the sun and stars, even for great periods of time, is clearly a desideratum if not essential in any thorough scheme of analysis of such movements. The pre- liminary paper (Part I) gives an account of the history and biblio- graphy of the development of the idea of a motion of translation of the sun through space, and also of the determinations of the direction and amount of this motion, indicating briefly at the same time the general principles underlying those determinations. The conception of an indefinitely extended stellar universe, in which the sun and its planetary system is but a single and perhaps insignificant member, is one that the world owes to Giordano Bruno, in 1584. The part played by Bruno, Schyrleus, Fontenelle, Halley, Bradley, Wright, Kant, Mayer, Lambert, Michell, and ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXXIX. Lalande in establishing and extending the conception is indicated. The first deduction of the direction of the solar motion was made by Pierre Prévost in 1781 from twenty-six stars, the latest by Kobold from 2,262 stars. Herschel is generally credited with being the first to numerically estimate the direction in 1783, but wrongly so. The historical sequence of the various determinations is preserved in the development of the paper, and the bibliography is believed to be exhaustive. 3. “On an Eucalyptus Oil containing sixty per cent. of geranyl acetate, by Henry G. Situ, F.c.s., Assistant Curator, Technological Museum, Sydney. In this paper the author shews that the oil of Hucalyptus macarthuri, known locally as Paddy’s River Box, is very rich in geraniol, it containing 60 per cent. of geranyl acetate, and 10°64 per cent. of free alcohol, calculated as geraniol. The oil is some- what analogous with that obtained from Darwinia fascicularis, brought under the notice of this Society by Mr. R. T. Baker and the author in December 1899. Both Darwinia and Hucalyptus belong to the natural order Myrtacexe. The oil of L. macarthura contains eudesmol (the stearoptene of Kucalyptus oil) the fraction distilling between 266 — 282° C., crystallising quite solid in the bottle. This substance is absent in the oil of Darwinia. The yield of oil from this Eucalypt collected in October from near Wingello, in this colony, and obtained by steam distillation from fresh leaves and branchlets was 0:112 per cent. The whole of the ester was saponified in the cold by alcoholic potash in one and a half hours. As no heat was applied, the separated oil was excellent, the geraniol not being interfered with. This fact of cold saponification of geranyl acetate might be used for quantita- tive determination of this ester, when it aud other esters are present in essential oils. Citral was obtained by oxidation, and the pure geraniol prepared from the calcium chloride compound; this was a colourless oil boiling at 224 — 225° C. (uncor.) and had a specific gravity of 885 at 20° C. The acid of the ester was shown to be acetic acid. The crude oil contained neither xl, ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. eucalyptol nor phellandrene, it was entirely different in appear- ance and constituents from ordinary Eucalyptus oil. It formed a clear solution with two volumes of 70 per cent. alcohol, it had an optical rotation of +3°6° in a 100 mm. tube, and specific gravity at 15° C. of (9245, the comparatively high specific gravity being due to the presence of the stearoptene. EXHIBITS. Dr. F. H. Quaire exhibited a modification of the Wehnelt interrupter to obviate the cracking of the glass tube by keeping the metal conductor inside it cool, and to cause, if a crack occurs in the glass, any acid to be driven out by electrolysis and so to prevent corrosion. This was shown in action by a storage battery giving 36 volts and 9 amperes. The peculiar ribbon-like spark between the points of the coil as well as the ordinary lightning sparks in streams were shown, and also the screen shadows of the X rays. A Watson’s Penetrator tube was used with a wet lint cover at the negative electrode. Mr. W. M. Hamer exhibited a new form of Phonograph. The following donations were laid upon the table and acknow- ledged :— TRANSACTIONS, JOURNALS, REPORTS, &c. (The Names of the Donors are in Italics.) BERLIN —Centralbureau der Internationalen Erdmessung. Bericht tiber den Stand der Erforschung der Breiten- variation am Schiusse des Jahres 1899 von Th. Albrecht. Verodffentlichung, Neue Folge, No. 2, 1900. The Bureau Gesellschaft fur Erdkunde. Verhandlungen, Band xxv1., Nos. 5 - 10, 1899; Band xxvir., Nos. 1-5, 1900. Zeit- schrift, Band xxxiv., Nos. 1-6, 1899; Band xxxv., No. 1 S00: The Society Koniglich preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften. Sit- zungsberichte, Nos. 39 — 58,1899. Nos. 1—388, 1900. The Academy Koniglich preussische Meteorologische Instituts. Bericht tiber die ‘l'hitigkeit im Jahre, 1899. Ergebnisse der Beobachtungen an den Stationen 11. und 111. Ordnung, Heft 3, 1895; Heft 1, 2, 1899. Ergebnisse der Nieder- schlags-Beobachtungen in den Jahren 1895 und 1896. Ergebnisse der Gewitter-Beobachtungen im Jahre 1897. The Institute ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xli. BERLIN—continued. Koniglich preussische Geoditische Institutes. Jahreshericht des Direktors, April 1898 bis April 1900. Verdffent- lichung, Neue Folge, Nos. 1, 2, 3,4, 1900. Comptes- - Rendus de Séances de la douziéme Conférence générale de l’Association Géodésique Internationale Stuttgart 1898, Tome 1., 11. Uebersicht der Veréffentlichungen des kénigl. preussischen geodiatischen Institutes und Centralbureaus der internationalen Hrdmessung 1899. The Institute BirmingHam—Birmingham and Midland Institute. Programme for Session 1900-1901. >» Bonn—Naturhistorischer Vereins der preussischen Rheinlande, Westfalens und des Reg.-Bezirks Osnabruck. Verhand- lunzen, Jahrgang uvi., Halfte 1, 2, 1899. The Society Niederrheinische Gesellschaft fiir Natur- und Heilkunde. Sitzungsberichte, Halfte 1, 2, 1899. a Boston, Mass.—American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Pro- ceedings, Vol. xxxv., Nos. 17-27; Vol. xxxvi., Nos. 1 — 4, 1900. The Academy Bremen—Meterologische Observatorium. Krgebnisse der Meteorologischen Beobachtungen im Jahre 1899, Jahr- gang x. The Observatory BrisBANE—Colonial Botanist. HExtracts from “‘ The Queensland Agricultural Journal,’ Vol. 1v., Part vi.; Vol. v., Parts i., v.; Vol. v1., Parts i., iv., vi., 1899-1900. Colonial Botanist Department of Mines. Geological Survey, Bulletin No. 11, 1900. Annual Progress Report for the year 1899. Report on the Geology of the West Moreton or Ipswich Coal Field by Walter E. Cameron,B.a., [C.A. 100 - 1899] Report on the Permo-Carboniferous Coal Measures of Clermont and Associated Formations by B. Dunstan, F.a.s. [C.A. 82—1900]. The Department Queensland Acclimatisation Society. Annual Report (37th) for the year ending 31 March, 1900. The Society Royal Geographical Society of Australasia. Queensland -Geographical Journal (New Series), Vol. xv., 1889-1900. __,, Royal Society of Queensland. Proceedings, Vol. xv., 1899- 1900. BS Brunswick—Vereins fiir Naturwissenschaft zu Braunschweig. Jahresbericht x1., 1897-99. ve BrusseLs—Académie Royale des Sciences, des Lettres et des Beaux-Arts. Annuaire 1898-99. Bulletins, 3 Ser., Tome xxxXIv.—xxxvi., 1897-98. Tables Générales du Recueil des Bulletins, 3 Ser., Tomes 1. - xxx., (1881 a 1895. The Academy Observatoire Royal de Belgique. Annuaire, 1898, 1899, 1900. The Observatory Société Royale Malacologique. Annales, Tome xxx1., Fasc 2, 1896 ; ‘Tome xxx11I., 1898; Tome xxxIv., pp. 97 - 128. The Society Buenos Arres—Museo Nacional de Buenos Aires. Anales, Tome vi. (Ser. 2, Tome 111.) 1899. Communicaciones, Tomel., Nos. 3-6, 1899-00. The Museum xlii. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. CatcuTtTta—Asiatic Society of Bengal. Journal, Vol. Lxvmit., Part i., No.1, Extra No. 1 and Plates; Partii., Nos. 1- 4,and Index: Part iii., No. 1, 1899: Vol. uxrx., Part i., No. 1, Part.ii., No.1, 1900. Proceedings, Nos. 4-11, 1899, Nos. 1-8. 1900. The Society Bengal Secretarial Book Depét. Dictionary of the Lepcha Language compiled by the late General G. B. Main- waring revised and completed by Albert Grtinwedel, Berlin, 1898. The Secretary of State for India Geological Survey of India. General Report from 1st April - 1899 to31 March 1900. Memoirs, Paleontologia Indica Ser. xv., Vol. 1., Part ii., 1899, Title Page to Vol. 11., 1897; New Series, Vol. 1., Parts 1., ii., 1899. The Survey CaAMBRIDGE—Cambridge Philosophical Society. Proceedings, Vol. x., Part vi., 1900. The Society Public Free Library. Annual Report (45th) 1899-1900. The Library CAMBRIDGE (Mass.)—Museum of Comparative Zodlogy at Harvard College. Bulletin, Vol. xxxvi., Nos. 1-4; Vol. xxxvit., Nos. 1, 2, 1900. The Museum Care Town—South African Philosophical Society. Transac- tions, Vol. x1., Part i., 1900. Tne Society CarLsRuHE—Grossherzoglich-Badische technische Hochschule. Festschrift zur Hinweihung der Neubauten im Mai 1899. Programm fiir das Studienjahr 1899/1900. Inaugural Dissertations (4). The Director Cuicaco—Chicago Academy of Sciences. Bulletin, No. 3, 1898. The Academy Field Columbian Museum. Publication No. 48, Botanical Series, Vol. 11., No.1; Publication No. 44, Geological Series, Vol. 1., No. 7, 1900. The Museum Western Society of Engineers, Journal, Vol. v., No. 2, 1900. The Society University of Chicago Press. Astrophysical Journal, Vol. xir., Nos. 1-8, 1900. Journal of Geology, Vol. viir., Nos. 4-6, 1900. The University CuHRISTIANIA—Kongelige Norske Fredericks Universitet. Norway: Official publication for the Paris Exhibition 1900. Ke Norwegische Meteorologische Instituts. Jahrbuch fiir 1898. The Institute Norwegian North Atlantic Expedition. Zoology, Vols. xxv., XXVI., XXVII., 1899-1900. The Editorial Committee Videnskabs-Selskabet i Christiania. Forhandlinger, 1899, Nos. 2 - 4, Oversigt and Title. Skrifter, Mathem-naturv. Klasse 1899, Nos. 1, 5, 8, 9 and Title. The Society CINcINNATI—Cincinnati Society of Natural History. Journal, Vol, xrx., Noi6; 1900: bes Cracow—Académie des Sciences de Cracovie. Bulletin Interna- tional, Nos. 6- 10, June — December, 1899; Nos. 1-7, Jan. —- July, 1900. The Academy Dusiin—Trinity College. Astronomical Observations and Re- searches made at Dunsink, Part ix., 1900. C. J. Joly, M.A. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xlili. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, DECEMBER 5, 1900. The General Monthly Meeting of the Society was held at the Society’s House, No. 5 Elizabeth-street North, on Wednesday evening, December 5th, 1900. The President, Prof. LIVERSIDGE, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., in the Chair. Twenty-five members and four visitors were present. The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed. The certificates of two candidates were read for the second time. Messrs. Davip Fett and LAwRENCE HARGRAVE were appointed Auditors for the current year. The President announced that the Council recommended the election of the following gentlemen as Honorary Members of the Society, viz :— Sir WILLIAM CROOKES, F.R.S. Sir W. TurNER THISELTON DYER, K.C.M.G., M.A., F.R.S. The election was carried unanimously. Printed copies of the alterations to the Rules, proposed by the Council were distributed among the members and agreed to unanimously. It was further resolved that the Rules be consecutively re- numbered, so as to omit if possible, of the distinction of A and B; such re-numbering to be left in the hands of the Council. THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ :— 1. “Intercolonial Water Rights as affected by Federation,” by H. G. McKINNEY, M.E£., M. Inst. CE, In explanation of the magnitude and importance of this question, it was pointed out that the drainage area of the Murray River is shared by four colonies as follows :—New South Wales 234,000 square miles, Queensland nearly 105,000 square miles, Victoria nearly 51,000 square miles, and South Australia over 24,000 square miles; making a gross area of 414,000 square miles. In xliv. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. seasons during which the rivers are high, the length of navigable river is 3,213 miles, as follows: Miles. River Murray from Goolwa to Wentworth Joe) Oa Ditto from Wentworth to Murrumbidgee Junction 255 Ditto from Murrumbidgee Junction to Corowa ... 485 - 1,357 River Murrumbidgee from Murray Junction to Narandera 500 River Darling from Wentworth to Mungindi _... + Loe Total in miles 3,213 While the Inter-State Commission to be appointed by the Federal Parliament will have charge of the navigation on these rivers, it is not to interfere with “the reasonable use of the waters of rivers for conservation or irrigation.” As the navigation is liable to long interruptions on the River Darling owing to deficient and uncertain supply of water, and is intermittent even on the River Murray, it is obvious that in a dry country such as that watered by these rivers and their tributaries, conflicts between the interests of navigation on the one hand, and of water conser- vation and irrigation on the other, are certain to arise. ‘The conditions on the principal tributary rivers were referred to in outline in the paper, and instances were given of the manner in which difficulties are likely to occur and of the complicated nature of the task with which the Inter-State Commission will have to deal. In Queensland the question of water rights on the rivers is practically untouched. In New South Wales numerous rights to water have been granted, but they are on such a limited scale that they cannot be regarded as any infringement on navigation rights. But in Victoria extensive works for water conservation and irrigation have been constructed, and rights to large quantities of water have been granted, while in South Australia, the water rights which have been granted, though on a much more limited scale than in Victoria, are of far greater importance than those granted up till the present in New South Wales. The Inter-State Commission will thus find that, in the different colonies concerned, the conditions as regards water rights differ widely. By way of ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xlv. illustration of the value of some of our unused water rights, the paper referred to the evidence lately taken by a Board of Inquiry regarding weirs in the Murrumbidgee. A prominent pastoralist who isa first-class practical authority on the value of water in the Central and Western Divisions, stated in evidence that if the pro- posed Murrumbidgee Southern Canal Project had been in opera- tion during the protracted drought which commenced in 1895, the entire outlay involved in its construction would have been returned to the country several times over. This evidence was supported by details regarding the area which could be irrigated and the crops which could be raised, these particulars being based on the . witness’ own experience. 2. ‘The Organisation, Language and Initiation Ceremonies of the Aborigines of the South-east Coast of New South Wales,” by R. H. Matuews, t.s., and Miss M. M. Everirrt, This article described the laws of marriage, descent and relation- ship in force among the native tribes occupying the south-east coast of New South Wales from the Hawkesbury River to Cape Howe, on the Victorian frontier, and extending inland till met on the west by the Wiradjuri organisation. A grammar of the language of the Gundungurra, one of the principal tribes in the region dealt with, was also supplied, in which the structure of the native tongue was fully investigated and explained. The paper concluded with a short account of the Kudsha, or Narra- mang, a ceremony of initiation practised within the same geographical limits, by means of which the young men are admitted to the status and responsibilities of tribesmen. 3. “Tables to facilitate the location of the Cubic Parabola,” by C. J. MERFIELD, F.R.A 8. In some brief remarks the author gives an outline of the general application of the cubic parabola, when used as a transition to connect the straights and circular curves of railway lines. The paper forms a contribution to the engineering profession, and will be found useful to those engaged in the location of railway lines. xlvi. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. A valuable table is appended, from which the constants of the curve for any case may be found. A complete numerical example illustrates the method of using the table. Details have been avoided, but they may be found in the papers, by the same author, that have been referred to in the notes. 4. “ Boogaldi Meteorite,” by Prof. LIvERSIDGE, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. This meteorite was exhibited by Mr. R. T. Baker, F.1.s., at the June meeting of the Royal Society of N.S. Wales, when he stated that it was found early in January this year at a place two miles from Boogaldi, a post town fifteen miles north-west of Coonan- barabran, Mr. Baker afterwards forwarded it to me for investi- gation and analysis. Description—The meteorite is a metallic one or a siderite, and is somewhat pear-shaped; it is a little over five inches long by about three inches broad at the widest part, and it weighed before cutting 2057°5 grammes. Itssp. gr. at 14° C. was found to be 7°85. It was covered, as usual, with a closely adherent skin of fused oxides, except in one place where it had been detached, the exposed metal had a bright lustrous appearance like nickel iron. In places thin crack-like markings are present—some of these are evidently closely related to the crystalline structure of the mass within. A few pits are noticeable upon the surface, these were probably due to the presence of granules of troilite, inasmuch as some granules of this mineral (FeS) were found when making the sections of the interior, cracks in the skin are seen starting from these pits—these cracks appear to be distinct from the smaller and regular ones meeting at definite angles, previously referred to. In addition to the larger and deeper pits there are in places numer- ous small ones which do not appear to be confined to the fused skin of the meteorite, these small ones correspond to the burst gas bubbles met with in slags and fused iron scale. There is however avery remarkable structure in the skin, shown most clearly at the two ends of the meteorite, which I have never observed before in a meteorite. At the thick end of the meteorite the fused oxides forming the skin have been thrown into well defined con- ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xlvii. centric waves or rings with transverse furrows in the direction of the thinner end of the meteorite—the waves and furrows gradually fade away in this direction. I think that these waves and furrows clearly show that the meteorite travelled through the earth’s atmosphere with the thick end in front, the waves of fused oxide being thrown up by the resistance of the air, just as waves are formed in sand by the wind. That the meteorite did travel with the thick end first is confirmed by the fact that at the thin end there are longitudinal ridges and furrows in the fused skin which clearly show where the excess of fused oxide was dragged off; the luminous streak usually seen behind a meteorite is, if not wholly, certainly in part, due to the fused incandescence left in its trail. Hence the waves and other markings in the skin not only show the direction in which the meteorite travelled but also its position, z.€., With the curved point of the thin end downwards as repre- sented in the photograph; for the fused oxides forming the skin are thickest on the lower side. Sections—These were made by permission of Prof. Warren, by a steam hack-saw in the Engineering Department of the University. The sections were polished and etched with copper sulphate and with bromine; the latter yielded the best surfaces. The crystalline structure is well defined, and it is noticeable that the groups of crystals all intersect at about the same angle and pass across from side to side and some from end to end of the meteorite. One or two small specks of troilite are to be seen, and at the thick end are to be seen two well marked cracks which pass out also through the crust. The crystalline structure is quite distinct from that of any of the Australian and other meteorites that have come under my notice. 5, “On anew aromatic Aldehyde occurring in Eucalyptus oils,” by Henry G. Smiru, F.c.s., Assistant Curator, Technological Museum, Sydney. . In this paper the author records the results of his investigation (so far as he has gone) on the aldehyde occurring in so many Eucalyptus oils, and which had for a long time been supposed to xlvill. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. be cumin-aldehyde. The aldehyde occurs in greatest amount in the oils obtained from members of the group of Eucalypts known in Australia as the “Boxes.” The true boxes, Z. hemiphloia, £. albens, aud #. Woollsiana, contain it in the largest quantity. The oil was obtained from £. hemiphloia, this tree growing plenti- fully at Belmore, in the neighbourhood of Sydney. 1,000 ce. of the crude oil was distilled, and the constituents distilling below 190° C. removed, the remainder of the oil was agitated with acid sodium sulphite with which it readily formed a solid compound, the pure aldehyde was easily obtained from this by the usual methods. The product was steam distilled, 33 cc. of the pure aldehyde was thus obtained from a litre of the crude oil, equal to 3°3 per cent. The specific gravity of the aldehyde at 15° C. was ‘9477. The specific rotation was[a], — 49°17, this somewhat high laevorotation causes those oils containing it to be laevorotatory, although mostly devoid of phellandrene. It is this aldehyde that causes the oil of Z. cnertfolia of South Australia to be laevo- rotatory. ‘The pure aldehyde has an aromatic odour and is slightly yellowish in tint. It was soluble in the usual solvents. The oxime was readily formed, and when purified from alcohol, it melted at 84°C.; and by preparing the oxime from the pure aldehyde obtained from the higher fractions of several oils, as E. cnerifolia, EF. albens, EH. Woollsiana, etc., it was shown that only this aldehyde is present in this class of oils, as this oxime melted at 84° C. also. The hydrazone was also readily obtained, it melted at 105° C. The aldehyde reduced an alkaline silver solution with the formation of a silver mirror, and also answered to Schiff’s reaction. Analysis showed the formula of the aldehyde to be C,,H,,0. When the aldehyde was oxidised with potassium bichromate a crystallised acid was obtained, the aldehyde group being oxidised to carboxyl in the usual way. This acid melted sharply at 110° C. It is soluble in boiling water, very soluble in alcohol and in ether. When the aldehyde was oxidised with an alkaline solution of potassium permanganate, energetic action took place, with the formation of eucalyptol or cineol as one of its products. The acid also obtained at the same time melted at ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xlix, 259 — 260° C. with decomposition, an anhydride being formed ; the acid is but slightly soluble in boiling water, soluble in alcohol and ether. The anhydride can be readily obtained from the acid by sublimation after melting. The anhydride melted at 152° C.; it is readily soluble in a small quantity of boiling water and erystallises out on cooling, very soluble in alcohol and in ether. The alcohol formed by reduction of the aldehyde is aromatic, but has not yet been obtained in a pure state. The author proposes the name aromadendral for this aldehyde, and aromadendric acid for the corresponding acid. The following donations were laid upon the table and acknow- ledged :— TRANSACTIONS, JOURNALS, REPORTS, &c. (The Names of the Donors are in Italics.) DrespEN—K. Sachs. Statistische Bureaus. Zeitschrift, Jahreang xLv., Heft 3,4,1899; Jahrgang xuv1., Heft 1, 2,1900. The Bureau | Konig]. Sammlungen fiir Kunst und Wissenschaft. Bericht uber die Verwaltung und Vermehrung 1896 and 1897. The Director Easton, Pa.—American Chemical Society. . Journal, Vol. xx11., Nos. 8— 10, 1900. The Society EpinsurcH—Royal Scottish Geographical Society. The Scottish Geographical Magazine, Vol. xv1., Nos. 8 - 10, 1900. J Royal Society of Edinburgh. Proceedings, Vol. xx11. Trans- actions Vol. xxx1x., Parts ii.—iv., Sessions 1897-99. sei Fiorence—Societa Italiana di Antropologia, Etnologia «Kc. Archivio, Vol. xx1x., Fasc. 1—3, 1899. a Fort Monrozt.— United States Artillery School. Journal, Vol. xiv., Nos. 1-2, (Whole Nos. 44—45) 1900. The School FRANKFURT A/mM—Senckenbergische Naturforschende Gesell- schaft. Abhandlungen, Band xx., Heft 2; Band xxt1., Heft 4; Band xxv1., Heft 1, 1899. Bericht, 1899. The Society FREIBERG i.s.—Konigl. Sachs. Bergakademie. Jahrbuch fir das Berg-und Huttenwesen im Kéonigreiche Sachsen. Jahr- gang 1899. 2 GoTHENBURG—Kungl. Vetenskaps-och Vitterhets-Samhilles. Handlingar, Fjarde Féljden, Haftet 2, 1898. Kongliga Svenska Vetenskaps-Akademiens. Ofversiet, Vol. tv1., 1899. . The Academy GoTTincen —Konigliche Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften. Nachrichten-Geschaftliche Mittheilungen, Heft 1, 1900. Mathematisch-physikalische Klasse, Heft 2, 3, 1899; Heft 1, 2, 1990. The Society Gratz—Naturwissenschaftliche Vereines fiir Steiermark. Mit- theilungen, Jahrgang 1899. d—Dec. 5, 1900. 39 = zm regs ‘ ], ABSTRACT OF PRUCEEDINGS. Haartem—Bibliothéque de Musée Teyler. Archives, Ser. 2, Vol. v1., Parts iv., v., 1899-00; Vol. vi1., Parti., 1900. TheMuseum Colonial Museum. Bulletin, No. 22,Maart 1900. Tijdscrift der Nederlandsche Maatschappij ter bevordering van Nijverheid. Nieuwe Reeks, Deel 111., Nov. Dec. 1899. EP Société Hollandaise des Sciences. Archives Néerlandaise des Sciences Exactes et Naturelles, Serie 2, Tome 111., Liv. 2—5, 1899-1900. The Society Hairax, N.S.—Nova Scotian Institute of Science. Proceedings and Transactions, Vol. x., Part i., Session 1898-99. The Institute Haute, A. s.—Kaiserliche Leopoldinisch-Carolinische Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher. Nova Acta, Bande Lxxm1., LxxIv., 1899. Repertorium, Band 11., Halfte 2, 1899. Katalog der Bibliothek, Lieferung 9, 1899. The Academy Hamsure—Deutsche Seewarte. Archiv, Jahrgang xx11., 1899. Ergebnisse der Meteorologischen Beobachtungen Jahr- ‘ gang xx1., 1898. Jahresbericht tiber die Thatigkeit der Deutschen Seewarte fur das Jahr 1898. Resultate Meteorologischer Beobachtungen von Deutschen und Hollandischen Schiffen fiir Eingradfelder des Nordat- lantischen Ozeans, Nos. 17, 18, 1899-1900. Katalog der Bibliothek, Nachtrag 11., 1899. The Observatory Geographische Gesellschaft in Hamburg. Mittheilungen, Band xv1., 1899. The Society Naturhistorische Museum in Hamburg. Mitteilungen, Jahrgang xv1., 1898. The Museum Vereins fiir Naturwissenschaftliche Unterhaltung. Ver- handlungen, Band x., 1896 — 1898. The Society Hamitton, Ont.—Hamilton Association. Journal and Proceed- ings, No. 15, Session 1898-99. The Association Havre—Société Géologique de Normandie. Bulletin, Tome xvilr., Années 1896-7. The Society HEIDELBERG—Naturhistorisch-Medicinische Vereins. Verhand- lungen, N.F. Band vi., Heft 3, 1899. Re HELSINGFoRS—Société des Sciences de Findlande. Acta, Tome xxiv., 1899. Bidrag till Kannedom af Finlands Natur och Folk Hiftet 57,1898. Ofversigtaf F. V. Societetens Forhandlingar xu., 1897-98. a Hopart—Department of Mines. Progress of the Mineral Industry of Tasmania for the Quarter ending 31 Decr. 1899. The Department Royal Society of Tasmania. Abstract of the Proceedings, May 1900. Papers and Proceedings for the years 1898- 1899. The Antarctic Expedition, Conversazione at the Town Hall, 18 April, 1900. The Society Hono.tutu—Bernice Pauahi Museum. Fauna MHawaiiensis, Vol. 1., Partsi., ii., iii, Memoirs, Vol.1., No. 1,1899. The Museum JzNA—Medicinisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Gesellschaft. Jen- aische Zeitschrift, Band xxx11r., N.F. xxvi., Heft. 3, 4; Band xxxiv., N.F. xxvu., Heft. 1-3, 1900. The Society Kerw—Royal Gardens. Hooker’s Icones Plantarum, 4th Series, Vol. vir., Part iii., 1900. The Bentham Trustees ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. li. Kierr—Société des Naturalistesde Kiew. Mémoires, Tome xv1., Liv. 1, 1899. The Society KoniesserG, I. Pr.—Physikalisch-dkonomische (Gesellschaft. Schriften, Jahrgang XL., 1899. x, La Prara—Directeur-Général de Statistique de la Province de Buenos Ayres. Anuario Estadistico de la Provincia de Buenos Aires ano 1897. The Director-General Museo de La Plata. Anales, Seccion Geoldégica y Mineralogica Part ii. Revista, Tomo 1x., 1899. T he Museum LavusaANNE—Société Vaudoise des Sciences Naturelles. Bulletin, Vol. xxxv., Nos. 132, 133, 184, 1899; Vol. xxxvi., No. 135, 1900. The Society Lrrezigc—KoOnigl. sachsische Gesellschaft zu Leipzig. Berichte tiber die Verhandlungen-Mathematisch-Physische Classe, Band u1., Nos. 4-6, Allgemeiner Theil, Naturwissen- schafter Theil, 1899, Band u11., Nos. 1 —3, 1900. 2 Vereins fiir Erdkunde. Mitteilungen, 1899. Wissenschaft- liche Veréffentlichungen, Band Iv., 1899. 5 Lifee—Société Géologique de Belgique. Annales, Tome xxv1., Liv. 4; Tome xxvit., Liv. 1-8, 1899-1900. Be Société Royale des Sciences de Liége. Mémoires, Série 3, Tome 11., 1900. a Lonpon—Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. Journal, Vol. xx1x., (N.S. Vol. 11.) Nos. 3,4, 1899. The Institute Chemical News, Vol. txxxtt., Nos. 2123 — 2135, 1900. The Editor Electrical Engineer, Old Series, Vol. xxx11., New Series, Vol. xxvi., Nos. 5—17, 1900. Ae Geological Society. Quarterly Journal, Vol. tv1., Part iii., No. 223, 1900. The Society Imperial Institute. Journal, Vol. v1., Nos. 68—70, 1900. The Institute Institution of Civil Engineers. Minutes of Proceedings, Vol. cxu., Part ii; Vol. cxu1., Part iii., Session 1899- 1900. The Institution Institution of Mechanical Engineers. Proceedings, Nos. 1 2, 3, 1900. ” Tnstitution of Naval Architects. Transactions, Vol. xL11., 1900. _,, Iron and Steel Institute. Journal, Vol. tvi1., No. 1, 1900. The Institute Linnean Society. Journal, Zoology, Vol. xxviri., No. 179, 1900. The Society Mineralogical Society. Mineralogical Magazine, Vol. x11., No. 57, 1900. i Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain. Pharmaceutical Journal, Fourth Series, Vol. vits., No. 1508, 1899; Vol. x., Nos. 1546, 1548, 1564; Vol. x1., Nos. 1571 - 1588,1900. _,, Physical Society of London. Proceedings, Vol. xvi1., Part lii., 1900. Science Abstracts, Vol. 111., Parts vi.—x., Nos. 32 - 34, 1900. Pale Royal Agricultural Society of England. Journal, Ser. 3, Vol. x1., Part iii., No. 48, 1900. . or lii. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Lonpon—continued. Royal Astronomical Society. Memoirs, Vols. Li., Lttt., 1896 — 1899. The Society Royal Geographical Society. The Geographical Journal, Vol. xvi., Nos. 2-4, 1900. AH Royal Meteorological Society. Quarterly J earn Vol. xxvL., Nos. 118, 114, 1900. Meteorological Record, Vol. x1x., No. 74, 1899. . Royal Microscopical Society. Journal, Parts iv., v., Nos. 137, 138, 1900. % Royal Society of Literature. Transactions, Series 2, Vol. xxI., Partiv.,1900. Chaucer Memorial Lectures, 1900. _ ,, Royal Society. Proceedings, Vols. Lv111. — Lxv.. 1895 ~ 1899; Vol. uxvi., Nos. 433, 434, 1900; Vol. uxvit., No. 435, 1900. Further Reports to the Malaria Committee, 1900. me Sanitary Institute. Journal, Vol. xx1., Part iii., 1900. The Institute Society of Arts. Journal, Vol. xtviir., Nos. 2489 — 2501, 1900. ; The Society Zoological Society of ender Beaeeed ine Parts i1., 1ii., 1900. List of Fellows to 31 May, 1900. Hh Lusreck—Geographische Gesellschaft und des Naturhistorische Museums in Liibeck. Festschrift das Museum zu Liibeck 1800—1900. .Fiuhrer durch das Museum in Liibeck Auflage 3, 1899. Mitteilungen, Zweite Reihe, Heft 12, 13, 1899. 4 Mapras—Madras Government Museum. Bulletin, Vol. 111., Nos. 1, 2, 1900. : The Museum Madras Observatory. Madras Meridian Circle Observations Vol. 1x., 1899, General Catalogue. Reports for 1898-99, 1899-1900. The Observatory MancueEsteRr—Conchological Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Journal of Conchology, Vol. 1x., No. 12, 1900. The Society Manchester Geological Society. Transactions, Vol. xxv1., Parts xiv. — xix., Session 1899-1900. ee Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society. Memoirs _ and Proceedings, Vol. xutv., Parts iv., v., 1899-1900. as Marpurc—Gesellschaft zur Beforderung der gesammten Natur- wissenschaften zu Marburg. Schriften, Band x11., Abth. 7; 18955. Sand X11, Abth. 3, 1898. Sitzungsberichte, Jahreang 189827" . ” University. Inaugural Ieaereabions (82). The University Marse1unEs—Faculté des Sciences deMarseille. Annales, Tome x., Preface and Fasc. 1 - 6, 1900. The Faculty Me.tzsourne—Australasian Institute of Mining Engineers. Pro- ceedings, Annual Meeting, January 1900. The Institute Australasian Journal of Pharmacy, Vol. vuit., No. 92, 1893; Vol. rx., Nos.'97, 104, 1894; Vol. x1v., No. 168, 1899; Vol. xv., No. 169 —179, 1900. The Publishers Broken Hill Proprietary Company, Ltd. Reports and State- ments of Account ‘for Half-years ending, 30 Nov. 1899 and 31 May 1900 (29th and 30th). The Company ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. lili. MELBOURNE—continued. Department of Agriculture. First Steps in Ampelography by Marcel Mazade 1900. The Department Department of Mines. Annual Report of the Secrétary for Mines and Water Supply during the year 1899. Geo- logical Survey of Victoria, Monthly Progress Report, Nos. 4—9, July — Decr., 1899, Nos. 10 - 12, Jan. - March 1900. Special Reports—Reports on the Victorian Coal- Fields, (No. 7) 1900. re Field Naturalists’ Club of Victoria. The Victorian Naturalist, Vol. xv1., Nos. 4, 5, 8-12, 1899-1900; Vol. xvit., Nos. t= 7, 1900. The Club Public Library, Museums, and National Gallery of Victoria. Catalogue of the Scientific and ‘Technical Periodical Literature in the Libraries in Melbourne, compiled by T. S. Hall, m.a., 1899. Fungus Diseases of Citrus Trees in Australia, and their treatment by D. McAlpine, 1899. Report of the Trustees for 1899. Wine-Making in Hot Climates, by L. Roos, 1900. The Trustees Royal Geographical Society of Australasia. Transactions, Wolk. xvit-; Part1., 1900: The Society Royal Society of Victoria. Proceedings, N.S., Vol. xi1r., Parts i., 11., 1899; Vol. x111., Part i., 1900. e. University—Annual Examination Papers, Oct. and Dec., 1899. Calendar 1901. Final Honour, Degrees &c., Examination Papers, Feb. 1900. Matriculation Exam- ination Papers, Nov. 1899, May 1900. The University Mertz—Vereins fiir Erdkunde zu Metz. Jahresbericht, 1898-9.° The Society Mexico—Instituto Geolégico de Mexico. Boletin, Nums 12, 13, 1899. The Institution Sociedad Cientifica “Antonio Alzate’? Memorias y Revista, Tomo x11., Nims 9 - 12, 1898-99 ; Tomo xiv., Nums 1 - 8, 1899-1900. : The Society Mitan—Reale Istituto Lombardo di Scienze e Lettere. Rendi- conti, Serie 2, Vol. xxx11., 1899. The Institute Societa Italiana di Scienze Naturali e del Museo Civico di Storia Naturale in Milano. Atti, Vol. xxxvii1., Fasc 3, 4, 1899-1900; Vol. xxxix., Fasc 1, 1900. The Socrety Mopena—Regia Accademia di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti. Memorie, Serie 3, Vol. 1., 1898. The Academy Mons—Société des Sciences, des Arts et des Lettres du Hainaut. Mémoires, Ser. 6, Tome 1., 1899. The Society MontTEvipEo—Museo Nacional de Montevideo. Anales, Tomo 11., Fasc 12, 1899; Tomo 111., Fase 13, 14, 1900. The Museum Observatorio Meteoroldgico del Colegio pio de Villa Coloén. Boletin Mensual, Afto xr. Nos. 11 y 12, 1899. The Observatory Republica o del Uruguay. Memoria presentada ala Honor- able Asamblea General en el 11 periodo de la xx Legis- latura por el Ministro de Fomento correspondiente al Ejercicio 1899. The Minister MontreaL—Natural History Society. The Canadian Record of Science, Vol. virr., Nos. 2 - 4, 1899-00. The Society Royal Society of Canada. Proceedings and Transactions, . Ser. 2, Vol. Ive, 1898, 29 liv. _ ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Moscow—Observatoire Météorologique de l’ Université Impériale de Moscou. Observations, April- June, August, 1899. The Observatory: Société Impériale des Naturalistes de Moscou. Bulletin, No. 1, 1899. Nouveaux Mémoires, Tome xvi., Liv. 2, 1899. The Society: MutHouse—Société Industrielle de Mulhouse. Bulletin, Tome Lx1x., Aug. - Dec., 1899; Tome Lxx., Jan. - Aug., 1900. Programme des Prix proposés en Assemblée Générale le 30 Mai 1900. is. Municu—Bayerische Botanische Gesellschaft. Berichte, Band vir., Abt. 1, 1900. is Koniglich Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften. Ab- handlungen der Mathematisch-Physikalischen Classe, Band xx., Abth. 2; Band xx1., Abth.1, 1900. Riickblick auf die Grindung und die Entwickelung von Dr. Karl A. von Zittel. Ueber die Hilfsmittel, Methoden und Resultate der Internationalen Erdmessung von Dr. Karl v. Orff, 1899. The Academy: Nantres—Socicté des Sciences Naturelles de l’Ouest dela France. Bulletin, Tome 1x., Trimestre 4, 1899. The Socrety Napixes—Societa Reale di Napoli. Atti della Reale Accademia delle Scienze Fisiche e Matematiche Serie 2, Vol. 1x., 1899. Rendiconto, Serie 3, Vol. v., Fase 8-12, 1899; Vol. vi., Fase 1-7, 1900. . Statione Zoologica. Mittheilungen, Band xiv., Heft 1, 2, 1900. The Station New Yorx—American Entomological Society. Transactions, . Vol. xxvi., Nos. 3, 4, 1900. The Society American Institute of Electrical Engineers. Transactions, Vol. xvur., Nos. 3 — 7, 1900. The Institute: American Museum of Natural History. Annual Report for 1899. Bulletin, Vol. x11., 1899. The Museum Columbia University. The School of Mines Quarterly, Vol. — xx1., No. 4, 1900. ~ The School. New York Academy of Sciences. Charter, By-Laws, and List of Members 1899. The Academy NuremserG — Naturhistorische Gesellschaft zu Nirnberg. Ab- handlungen, Band 1. and 111., Heft 1, 2, Iv., vil. — XII., 1852 — 1899. The Society: OTtawa—Geological Survey of Canada. Annual Report (New Series) Vol. x., 1897 with Maps, 560, 589, 599, 606, 652 — 654. Contributions to Canadian Paleontology, Vol. Iv., Parti., by Lawrence M. Lambe, F.a.s., 1899. Desecrip- tive Note of the Sydney Coal Field, Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, by Hugh Fletcher, B.a., 1900. Preliminary Report on the Klondike Gold Fields. Yukon Distvrict, Canada, by R. G. McConnell, B.a., 1900. : The Survey: PaLERMOo—Societa di Scienze Naturalied Economiche. Giornale Vol. xx11., 1899. The Society: ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. lv. Paris—Académie des Sciences de l’Institut de France. Comptes Rendus, Tome cxxx., Nos. 2- 26;, Tome cxxx1., Nos 1 —16, 1900. © The Academy Ecole d’ Anthropologie de Paris. Revue Mensuelle, Année x., Nos. 1 — 9, 1900. The Director Feuille des Jeunes Naturalistes. Bibliothéque-Liste Sommaire des ouvrages and Memoires concernant la Malacologie [Fasc 1a xxvit.] 1900. Revue Mensuelle d’ Histoire Naturelle, Ser. 3, Année xxx., Nos. 354-360, 1900. The Editor Muséum d’ Histoire Naturelle. Bulletin, Année 1900, Nos. 1-4,6-8. The Museum Observatoire de Paris. Rapport Annuel pour l’Année 1899. The Observatory Société d’Anthropologie de Paris. Bulletins, Série 4, Tome x., Fasc 4, 5, 1899. The Society Société de Biologie. Comptes Rendus 11th Série, Tome r., No. 40; Tome u11., Nos. 8 - 30, 1900. Cinquantenaire de la Société de Biologie, Volume Jubilaire 1899. Société Francaise de Minéralogie. Bulletin, Deuxiéme Table Decennale des Matiéres, Vols. x1. 4xx., Tome xxii1., Nos. 1 - 5, 1900. Société Francaise de Physique. Bulletin Bimensuel, Nos. 146 - 152, 1900. Séances, Fasc. 3, 4,1899; Fasc. 1, 1990. Société Géologique de France. Bulletin, Sér. 3, Tome xxv1., No. 7, 1897; Tome xxvi1., No. 5, 1899. Société de Spéléologie. Bulletin, Tome v., Nos. 17 - 20, 1899. Société Zoologique de France. Bulletin, Tome xxiv., 1899. 39 PrertH, W.A.—Department of Mines. Mining Statistics 1899, Jan.—Sept., 1900. Report of the Department of Mines for the year 1899. Supplement to Government Gazette of Western Australia, Nov. 24, Dec. 29, 1899; Feb. 2, 24th, March 23, April 27, May 25, June 29, July 27, Sept. 7, 28, Oct. 26, 1900. The Department Geological Survey. Bulletiu, No. 4, 1900. Government Geologist Registrar General of Western Australia. Western Australian Year-Book for 1898-99, Vols. 1., 11., (Eleventh edition), by Malcolm A.C. Fraser, F.B.G.8., etc. Registrar General PHILADELPHIA—Academy of Natural Sciences. Proceedings, Part i., 1900. The Academy: American Philosophical Society. Brinton Memorial Meeting 1900. Memorial Volume 1., 1900. Proceedings, Vol. xxxix., Nos. 161, 162,1900. — The Society Franklin Institute. Journal, Vol. cu., Nos. 2-4,1900. The Institute University of Pennsylvania. University Bulletin, Vol. Iv., Nos. 7 — 9, 1899-1900. The University Pisa—Societa Toscana di Scienze Naturali. Processi Verbali, Vol. x1., 2 July, Vol. x11., 19 Nov., 1899, 28 Jan., 4 Mar. 1900. Port Lovis—Royal Alfred Observatory. Results of the Mag- netical and Meteorological Observations made in the year 1898. The Observatory 339 lvi. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. PurBLA—Observatorio Meteorologico del Colegio del Estado de Puebla. Boletin Mensual, Abril - Agosto 1900. The Observatory QureBec—Literary and Historical Society of Quebec. Transac- tions, Nos. 22, 28, Sessions 1892—1900. La Vie de Joseph-Francois Perrault, 1898. The Society Rio DE JANEIRO-—Observatorio do Rio de Janeiro. Boletim Mensal, Janeiro-Abril 1900. Methodo para determinar as horas das Occultacoes de estrellas pela Lua por L. Cruls, Director, 1899. The Observatory RocuHester, N.Y.—Rochester Academy of Science. Proceedings, Vol. 111., Brochure 2, 1900. The Academy Rome—Accademia Pontificia de’ Nuovi Lincei. Atti, Anno u1I1., Sessione 1 - 4, 1899 - 1900. ri ie Biblioteca e Archivio Tecnico. Giornale del Genio Civile, Anno xxxvil., Fase 7-12, 1899; Anno xxxvii1., Jan— June, 1900. Relazione sullAndamento dei Servizi dal 1 Luglio 1898 al 31 Dicembre 1899. Minister of Public Instruction, Rome Reale Accademia dei Lincei. Atti, Serie Quinta Rendiconti, ° Semestre 2, Vol. vi1r., Fasc 8-12, 1899; Semestre 1, Vol ix., Fasc 1-12; Semestre 2, Vol. 1x., Fasc 1-7, 1900. ; The Academy Societa Geografica Italiana. Bollettino, Ser. 3, Vol. x11., Nos. 10-12, 1899; Serie 4, Vol. 1., Nos. 1-10, and Supplemento 1900. Memorie, Vol. rx., 1899. Revista Geografica Italiana, Annata vi., Fasc. 9, 10, 1899; Annata vit., Fase 1—7, 1900. ; The Society SacRAMENTO—Lick Observatory. Publications, Vol. tv., 1900. The Observatory Satem (Mass.)—Essex Institute. Historical Collections, Vol. xxxv., Nos. 3,4, 1899; Vol. xxxv1., Nos. 1,2,1900. The Institute Sao Pauto—Museu Paulista. Revista, Vol. rv., 1900. The Museum Scranton—Colliery Engineer Co. Mines and Minerals, Vol. Vol. xx1., Nos. 1-38, 1900. The Colliery Engineer Co. SINGAPORE—Royal Asiatic Society. Journal, Nos. 338, 34, 1900. The Society SOMERVILLE, Mass.—Tufts College. Tufts College Studies, No. 6 (Scientific Series) 1900. | The College St. ANDREWsS—University. Calendar for the year 1900-1901. The Unwersity St. PeTERsBuRG—Académie Impériale des Sciences. Bulletin, Ser. 5, Tome viir., No.5; Tome 1x., Nos. 1-5, 1898; Tome x., Nos.1-—5; Tome x1., Nos. 1—5, 1899; Tome xir., No.1, 1900. Mémoires, 8 Ser. Classe Historico- Philologique, Vol. 111., Nos.’8 — 6, 1898-99 ; Vol 1v., Nos. 1—7,1899-00. Classe Physiko-Mathématique, Vol. vir., No. 4; Vol. viit., Nos. 1-10, 1898-99; Vol. rx.; Nos. 1 —9, 1899-00 ; Vol. x., Nos. 1, 2, 1900. The Academy Comité Géologique (Institut des Mines). Bulletins, l’ome xvi1., Nos. 3—10, 1899. Mémoires, Tome vi1., Nos. 3, 4; Tome 1x., No. 5; Tome xv., No. 3, 1899, ° The Committee . Russisch-Kaiserliche Mineralogische Gesellschaft. Verhand- lungen, Ser. 2, Band xxxvi1., 1899. The Society ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. lvii. STRASSBURG, i1.z.—Centralstelle des Meteorologischen Landes- dienstes in Elsass-Lothringen. Ergebnisse der Meteo- rologischen Beobachtungen im Reichsland Elsass-Loth- ringen im Jahre 1896.__. The Director Srurreart—K bnigliches Statistisches Landesamt. Ergainzungs- band 1., zu den Wiirttembergische fir Statistik und Landeskunde, Heft 2, 3, 1900. Wiirttembergische Jahr- biicher fiir Statistik und Landeskunde, Jahrgang 1899, Teil 11. The ‘Landesamt’ Vereins fiir Vaterlandische Naturkunde in Wurttemberg. Jahreshefte, Jahrgang Lvt., 1900. The Society Sypney—Australian Museum. Memoiritt., Part x.; Memoir Iv., Parts 1.,ii., 1899-1990. Miscellaneous Publications, No. 6, 1900. Records, Vol. 111., Nos. 6 —8,:1899-1900. The Australian Museum by S. Sinclair, 1900. The Trustees Rotanic Gardensand Domains. Report on, for year 1899. The Director British Medical Association (New South Wales Branch). The Australasian Medical Gazette, Vol. x1rx., Nos. 1— 11, 1900. The Association Department of Mines and Agriculture. Agricultural Gazette of N. 8S. Wales, Vol. x1., Parts iii—xii., 1900. Annual Mining Report for the year 1899. Mineral Resources, Nos. 7, 8. Records of the Geological Survey of New South Wales, Vol. v1., Part iv.; Vol. vir., Part i., 1900. The Department Department of Public Health. Hunter River combined Sanitary District, Report of the Medical Officer of Health for the year 1899. Report of Leprosy in New South Wales for the year 1898. Report on the case of A.P. (Plague) 1900. Second Report on Protective inoculation against Tick Fever by Frank Tidswell, .B., ch. M., D.P.H., 1900. Suggestions for prevention of Consumption (or Tuberculosis) 1899 by Dr. J. Ashburton Thompson, BA Department of Public Instruction. N.S. Wales Educational Gazette, Vol. 1x., Nos. 7-12; Vol. x., Nos. 1-3, 5, 6, 1899-1900. Report of the Minister of Public Instruction 1899. Ap Government Printer. The Statutes of New South Wales (Public and Private) together with a Reserved Bill: passed during the first, second, and third Sessions of 1899. 4° Sydney 1900. The Government Printer Government Statistician. New South Wales Statistical Register for 1898, 1899 and previous years, Parts i. — xiv. Statisticians Report on the Vital Statistics of New South Wales, 1899 and for months of July to October 1900. Statistics of the Seven Colonies of Australasia, 1861 — 1899. The Wealth and Progress of New South Wales, 1898-9, Twelfth issue by T. A. Coghlan, Hon. Fel. R.S.S. Government Statistician Horticultural Association of New South Wales. A Chat on Daffodils by Peter Barr, v.M.x. The Association Linnean Society of New South Wales. Abstract of Pro- ceedings, March 28, April 25, May 30, June 27, July 25, Aug. 29, Sept. 26, Oct. 31, Nov. 28, 1900. Proceedings, Vol. xxiv., Parts iii,, iv., Nos. 95, 96, 1899; Vol. xxv., Parts 1. -ii1., Nos. 97 — 99, 1900. The Society lviii. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. SyDNEY—continued. N.S. Wales Chamber of Mines. Journal, Vol.1., Nos. 3-6, 1899-1900. Transactions, Vol. 1., Nos. 1,2,1900. The Chamber Public Library of N. S. Wales. Report of the Trustees for _ the year 1899. The Library Royal Anthropological Society of Australasia. Science of Man, New Series, Vol. 11., Nos.11, 12; Vol. 111., Nos. 1 - 7,9, 10, 1900. The Society Registrar General. Report on the Vital Statistics of Sydney and Suburbs for the months of Feb. March, April, June 1900, also for Quarters ending 31 March and 30 June, 1900. Registrar General University of Sydney. Calendar for the year 1900. Catalogue of the Books in the Library 1892, and Supplement 1900. The University TarpiInac—Perak Government Gazette, Vol. x11., Nos. 31 - 39, and Title etc., 1899; Vol. x111., Nos. 1-386, 1900. The Secretary Toxrio—Asiatic Society of Japan. Transactions, Vol. xxvit., Parts i.- iv., and Supplement. The Society Imperial University. Calendar, 1899-1900. Journal of the College of Science, Vol. 1x., Part i., 1895; Vol. x1., Part iv., 1899; Vol. x11., Part iv., Vol x111., Parts 1., ii., 1900. The University Toronto—Canadian Institute. Proceedings, New Series, Vol. 11., Part iii., No. 9, 1900. Transactions, Vol. v1., Parts i., li., Nos. 11, 12, 1899. The Institute TouLousse—Académie des Sciences, [nscriptions et Belles-Lettres. Bulletin, Tome 11.. Nos. 1—4, 1898-99. The Academy Trencsin — Naturwissenschaftliche Vereines des Trencsiner Comitates. Jahresheft 1898-99. The Society Trieste—K. K. Astronomisch-Meteorologische Observatorium. Rapporto Annuale, 1896. The Observatory Tromso—Tromso Museum. Aarsberetning for 1898. Aarshefter XXI., XXII., 1898-99. The Museum Tunis—Institut de Carthage. Revue Tunisienne, Tome vit., Nos. 25, 26, 1900. The Institute TurRInN—R. Accademia delle Scienze di Torino. Atti, Vol. xxxrIv., Disp. 15, 1898-99; Vol. xxxv., Disp. 1 - 15, 1899-1900. The Academy R. Osservatorio Astronomico di Torino. Effemeridi del Sole e della Luna, 1900-1901. Osservazioni Meteorologiche, 1898-99. Reprints (2) The Observatory UrsaLa—Kongliga Vetenskaps Societeten. Nova Acta, Serie 3, Vol. xvui1., Fasc 2, 1900. ! The Society VeEnicE—R. Istituto Veneto di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti. Atti, (Tomo tv1.) Serie 7, Tome 1x., Disp. 8 - 10,and Supplet 1897-98 ; (Tomo tvimt.) Serie 8, Tome 1., Disp. 1-5, 1898-99; (Tomo trx.) Serie 8, Tome 11 , Disp. 1 - 2, 1899- 1900. Memorie, Vol. xxv1., Nos. 3 —5, 1899. The Institution ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. lix.. Vienna—Anthropologische Gesellschaft in Wien. Mittheilun- gen, Band xxvii., Heft 5, 6, 1898; Band xx1x., Heft 1-3, 5, 1899. The Society Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften. Sitzungsberichte, Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Classe— Band cvi., Abtheilung 1., Heft 6-10, 1898 9 ” Ila, ” 3 —10, ey oy) a9 11b, 29 4 ag 10, 99 3 Ike ae a Oey, The Academy K.K. Central-Anstalt fiir Meteorologie und Erdmagnetismus. Jahrbiicher, N.F., Band xxxi., 1895; Band xxxri1., 1896 ; xxxv., 1898. The Station K. K. Geographische Gesellschaft. Abhandlungen, Band 1., Heft 1-5, 1899. Mittheilungen, Band xuir , 1899. The Society K. K. Geologische Reichsanstalt. Jahrbuch, Band xuviit., Heft 3, 4, 1898 ; Band xi1x., Heft 1—3,1899. Verhand- lungen, Nos. 9-18, 1899, Nos. 1 — 10, 1900. The Reichsanstalt K. K. Gradmessungs-Bureau. Astronomische Arbeiten, Band x1., 1899. Verhandlungen der osterreichischen Gradmessungs-Commission Protokoll 7 July 1899. The Bureau K. K. Naturhistorische Hofmuseums. Annalen, Band x111., Nos. 1, 2, 3, 1898. The Museum K. K. Zoologisch- Botanische Gesellschaft. Verhandlungen, Band xuviit., Heft 1-10, 1898; Band xurx., 1899. The Society Section fiir Naturkunde des Osterreichischen Club. Mit- theilungen, Jahrgang X1., 1899. The Section. VizacaPpatam—G. V. Juggarow Observatory. Notes on the Meteorology of Vizagapatam, Part ii., by W. A. Bion, 1899. The Observatory Wancanvui—Public Museum. Annual Report (5th) of the Hon. Curator for the year ending 30 June 1900. The Museum. Wasuineton—Department of Agriculture. Crop Reporter, Vol. 1., Nos. 4-6, 1900. Division of Biological Survey: Bulletin No. 18, 1900 Division of Botany: Contribu- tions from the U.S. National Herbarium, Vol. v., No.5, 1900. Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology: Bulletin Nos. 21. 22, 1899-1900. Monthly Weather Review, Vol. xxvii1., Nos. 4—'7,1900. North American Fauna: No. 19, 1900. Office of Experiment Stations: Bulletin, No. 81, 1899. Section of Foreign Markets, Bulletins Nos. 18 — 15,19, 1898 -1900. Year Book, 1898, 1899, and Reprints (4). The Department Department of the Interior. Annual Report (19th) of the U.S. Geological Survey, Vols. 1.—v.and Atlas vi. and vi..continued 1898. Annual Report of the Commissioner of Education, Vols. 1., 11., 1898. me Navy Department— Office of Naval Intelligence. Notes on Naval Progress, July 1900. Office of Naval Intelligence: Smithsonian Institution. Annual Report of the Board of Regents, U.S. National Museum, Parti., year ending June 30, 1897. The Institution U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Report of the Superin- tendent, July 1, 1897 to June 30, 1898. The Survey lx. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. W ASHINGTON-—continued. U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin, Nos. 150-162, 1898- 99. Monographs, Vols. xxx11., Part il., XXXIII., XXXIV., XXXVI , XXXVII., XXXVIII., 1899. The Survey U.S. Hydrographic Office. Notices to Mariners, Nos. 28—52, and Index 1899; Nos. 1—20, 1900. The Office WELLINGTON—Mines Department. Annual Report (38rd) of the Colonial Laboratory, 1898-99 by William Skey. The Department New Zealand Institute. Transactions and Proceedings, . Vol. xxxiI., 1899. The Institute Polynesian Society. Journal, Vol. vir., No. 4, 1899; Vol. 1x., Nos. 1 - 8, 1900. The Society Winnipea— Historical and Scientific Society of Manitoba. Annual Report for the year 1899. Transactions, Nos. 55, 56, 1900. ” ZuricH—Naturforschende Gesellschaft. Neujahrsblatt, Stuck 102. Vierteljahrsschrift, Jahrgang xLiv., 1899; xLv., 1900. 99 MIscELLANEOUS. (The names of the Donors are in Italics.) American Journal of Obstetrics, November 1899. The Publishers Armstrong, Lord, c.B., F.R.s.—Electric Movement in Air and Water with Theoretical Inferences, and Supplement. Dr. F. H. Quaife, M.A. Astronomical Observations and Researches made at Dunsink— The Observatory of Trinity College, Dublin, Part ix., 1900. C.J. Joly Bashford, Francis, B.p.—A second supplement toa revised account of the experiments made with the Bashford Chronograph to find the resistance of the air to the motion of pro- jectiles with the application of the results to the calcu- lation of trajectories, 1900. The Author Belin, Dr. René—Observation d’un cas rare de kyste dermoide du médiastin pneumectomie partielle-Guérison, 1900. a3 Brough, Bennett H.—Cantor Lectures on the nature and yield of Metalliferous Deposits, 1900. 5 Die Chronik der Sevcenko-Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften No. 4, 1900. The Society Economic Journal, Vol. x., No. 38, June 1900. A. Duckworth Huggins, Sir William and Lady—An Atlas of Representative Stellar Spectra. The Authors Kalkowsky, Prof. Dr. Ernst—Hanns Bruno Geinitz. Die Arbeit seines Lebens, 1900. The Author Laboratorium et Museum, Nos. 1, 2, 1900. The Publisher Lloyd Library of Botany, Pharmacy and Materia Medica, Bul- letin, No. 1, 1900. ” Maiden, J. H., ¥.u.s.—A Second Contribution towards a Flora of Mount Kosciusko. Native Food Plants. Useful Aus- tralian Plants, Nos. 58, 55, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 1899, 1900. The Author ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. lxi. Maunder, E. W., F.n.a.s.—The Indian Eclipse, 1898. C.J. Merfield, ¥.R.A.8. Morton, Alex.—Some account of the Work and Workers of the Tasmanian Society and the Royal Society of Tasmania from the year 1840 to the close of 1900. The Author Sound Currency, Vol. vir., No. 8, August 1900, New York. The Publisher Spencer, Walter m.p.—A new variety of Dermatitis Exfoliativa Neonatorum. : The Author Tebbutt, John, F.R.A.s.—Report of Mr. Tebbutt’s Observatory, The Peninsula, Windsor, N. S. Wales, for the year 1899. __,, The Oxford English Dictionary—A new English Dictionary on Historical Principles, Edited by Dr. James A. H. Murray Parts 1. - v. Prof. T. P. Anderson Stuart, M.D., LL.D. Thompson, J. Ashburton, M.D., D.P.H.—On the guidance of public effort towards the further prevention of Consumption, 1899. The Author Tidswell, Frank, M.B.,ch. mM. D.P.H.—On Plague and its Dissemin- ation, 1900. ae Tidswell, Frank, u.s.,and Dick, James Adam, B.A., M.D.— Bubonic Plague in 1141 B.C., 1899. The Authors Zeitschrift fiir Angewandte Microskopie, Band v., Heft 10, Jan. 1900. The Publisher PERIODICALS PURCHASED IN 1900. American Journal of Science, (Silliman). Analyst. Annales des Chimie et de Physique. Annales des Mines. Annals of Natural History. Astronomische Nachrichten. Australian Mining Standard. British Medical Journal. Building and Engineering Journal of Australia and New Zealand. Dingler’s Polytechnisches Journal. Electrical Review. Engineer. Engineering. Engineering and Mining Journal. Engineering Record and Sanitary Engineer. English Mechanic. Fresenius Zeitschrift fiir Analytische Chemie. Geological Magazine. Glacialists’ Magazine. Journal of Anatomy and Physiology. Journal of Botany. Journal of Morphology. Journal of the Chemical Society. Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry. Knowledge. xl. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. L’ Aéronaute. Lancet. Medical Record of New York. Mining Journal. Nature. Notes and Queries. ‘Observatory. Petermann’s Erganzungsheft. Petermann’s Geographischen Mittheilungen. Philosophical Magazine. Photographic Journal. Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association. ‘Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science. Revue Critique Paleozvologie. Sanitary Record. Science. Scientific American. Scientific American Supplement. Zoologist. Booxs PURCHASED IN 1900. Australian Handbook, 1900. Biedermann’s Technisch Chemisches—Jahrbuch. Vol. xx1., 1898-9. Braithwaite’s Retrospect of Medicine, Vols. cxx., oxxt., 1899-1900. British Association Report, 1899. German Chemical Society s Publications. Medico-Chirurgical Society, Transactions, Vol. txxx1t., 1899. Nautical Almanack 1900, 1901, 1902. New Sydenham Society Publications, Vols. chx1x., CLXX., CLXx. Obstetrical Society—Transactions, Vol. xu1., 1899. ‘Official Year Book of Scientific and Learned Societies, 1900. Pathological Society, Transactions, Vol. u., 1899; Vol. u1., Partsi.,ii., 1900. Ray Society Publications for 1898. Report of the Medical Officer for 1898-99. Society of Chemical Industry—Collective Index to Journal, Vols. 1. - xIv., The Oxford English Dictionary to date. 1882 - 1895. Whitaker’s Almanack 1900. PROCEEDINGS oF SECTIONS. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. lxv. PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECTIONS (IN ABSTRACT.) ENGINEERING SECTION. The first meeting of the Session was held in the Large Hall of the Society’s House on June 20th, 1900, at 8 p.m., when there were present Mr. Norman SELFE, M. Inst. C.E., (in the Chair), and twenty-one members and visitors. The Chairman of the Section Mr. N. Seurs, then delivered his presidential address entitled ‘‘A century of Australian Engineer- ing.” A cordial vote of thanks to the Chairman was moved by Mr. C. O. Bures, seconded by Mr. A. B. Portus, and carried by acclamation. Interesting exhibits were supplied by Mr. W. Tuow and Mr. G. H. Hatiean. Meeting held September 19. There were present Mr. N. SELFE, M. Inst.C.E., (in the Chair) and seven members and visitors. Mr. S. J. Pouuirzer gave an interesting demonstration of a new form of mine surveying instrument devised by himself, and was accorded a very hearty vote of thanks. The remaining business of the evening was adjourned. Meeting held December 19. There were present Mr. N. SELFE, M. Inst. C.E., (in the Chair) and thirty-five members and visitors. The following members were elected as Officers and Committee for the following year:—Chairman: J. M. Smai, M. Inst. CE. Hon. Secretaries: S. H. BARRACLOUGH, M.M.E., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., H. H. Dare, ME., Assoc. M. Inst.C.E. Committee: Percy ALLAN, ¥... Ixvi. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., G. R. Cowprry, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., J. Davis, M. Inst.C.E., Henry DEANE, M. Inst. c.E., J. I. Haycrort, m.e., M. Inst. C.E.1., LEE MURRAY, M.C.E., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., M.L.E.E., HERBERT E. Ross, Professor W. H. WaRREN, M. Inst. C.E., M. Am Soe. C.E. Mr. C. W. Dartey, read a paper entitled “Curved concrete — walls for storage reservoirs.” Mr. C. O. Buras, presented some additional remarks on “ Rack Railways.” Professor WARREN read a paper by himself and Mr. 8. H. BaRRACLouaH, entitled ‘‘Experiments on the strength of brick- work, when subjected to compressive and transverse stresses.” Cordial votes of thanks to the authors of papers, and to the retiring Chairman and Hon. Secretary concluded the meeting. ANNUAL ADDRESS. By Norman SELFH#, M. Inst. C.E., M. 1. Mech. E. [ Delivered to the Engineering Section of the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, June 20th, 1900. | In opening the present session of the Engineering Section of the Royal Society of New South Wales, I have first to thank the members for the honour they have done me in my election to this chair. I now propose, as this is the last year of the nineteenth century, that instead of attempting to catalogue the great engineering events of the past twelve months, you allow me to make my remarks more discursive. I have looked up some early accounts of engineering in Australia, and I trust it will interest members if my references to present day engineering are prefaced by some historical memoirs. Before going back to the year 1788 I would ask you to remember, that if the session of 1900 is to be successful, the members as a whole must exert themselves towards securing that success, by bringing forward papers and generally aiding the Committee in its work, so that there may be something of special interest at all the future meetings. Hach of us has some engineering knowledge or experience not possessed by our fellows, and there are now so many branches in which we are desirous of being taught, that there will be no lack of listeners when a popular subject is discussed. As the greater number of our members are associated with the work of the civil engineer, the mathematician, and the surveyor, it will be appropriate if I commence my refer- ences to the early history of engineering in Australia by bringing before you the name of a pioneer whose memory seems to have been much neglected. | Australia’s first engineer and surveyor.—The first engineer and surveyor of Australia was Augustus Theodore Henry Alt, whose services do not appear to have had much recognition at the hands 1—June 20, 1900. II. NORMAN SELFE. of historians. He did not commence his career in this land as an inexperienced youth, like many other men who were afterwards sent out in order that a position might be found for them; but he had a reputation as an engineer and surveyor before he reached this State with Governor Phillip. In 1755 he was Ensign in the King’s Eighth Regiment of Foot and served with his regiment in France. In 1760 he was Aide-de-Camp to Prince Ferdinand and several Generals. In 1763 he was Engineer of Roads in the Highlands of Scotland. As captain of the Manchester Corps at the Siege of Gibraltar, General Elliot made him assistant engineer. In 1785 he was appointed engineer of the island of Mauritius, and in 1786 when the Pitt Ministry required a capable engineer and land surveyor to proceed to the proposed settlement at Botany Bay, Captain Alt was selected ; and on the 28th of October 1786, the King in Council signed his commission as surveyor of the Territory of New South Wales. Captain Alt’s first important work in the State was the laying out of the town of Sydney in conjunction with Governor Phillip, who appears from statements made in his letters, to have had some knowledge as an engineer and surveyor. In the first design for the future ‘City of the South,” dated July 1788 the principal street was intended to be two hundred feet wide, and the allotments were to have frontages of sixty feet with a depth of one hundred and fifty feet. The ground at first marked out for Government House was intended to include the Main Guard and Civil and Military Courts on the one block. The site chosen was about where new St. Phillip’s church now stands. The hospital was to be built on the west side of Sydney Cove, about where the Mariner’s church now is, and the storehouses to be by the water side where the Commissariat buildings—still standing—were afterwards erected by Governor Macquarie. The Military Barracks were to be erected near the grounds subsequently adopted, now the site of Wynyard Square ; and the blocks to the west of it (the ground running to the south- ‘ward of the officials’ quarters being nearly level) was thought to be suitable for building the wide streets proposed. It was intended ANNUAL ADDRESS. III. that the allotments should be granted with the condition that only one house should be erected on each block. Had these liberal views with regard to Sydney been adhered to, the city would not have been disfigured as it now is by such numbers of narrow and irregular streets. What was in many respects, one of the best sites in the world for a model city, has for more than a century been the field of narrow and disjointed enterprises put forward by individual and opposing interests. Authority that should have made itself felt in the improvement of the city and the welfare of the citizens, seems to have either lain dormant through ignorance or otherwise to have been kept down by the heel of private interest, until at length, when the fair fame of Sydney was nearly prostrate in the slough of neglect and abuse, but before it became quite a byeword and reproach among the nations, the strong arm of Government has been raised to rescue it. In the first survey of the foreshores of the town of Sydney, Surveyor Alt was materially assisted by Captain Hunter, Lieu- tenant Bradley, and Lieutenant W. Dawes. He had nothing to do with the marine survey of Port Jackson, or of any of the coast, bays, and harbours. Governor Hunter, who seems from his plans as printed, to have been a good draughtsman, apparently did a great deal of this work personally ; the land surveys how- ever, were performed by Mr. Alt, with some assistance from Lieutenant Dawes, who had a taste for engineering, although his special work was astronomy. Dawes might have been of valuable service to the State had he stayed longer, but in 1791 he had a quarrel with Governor Phillip which led to his returning to England. (He appears to have had some humane objections to the military being sent out to destroy the natives, which Phillip resented). Dawes commenced the erection of an observatory on the point still known by his name, but he left the State before there was any thought of erecting the battery called after him. The only battery with which Dawes as an artillery officer was associated was an earth work around the Flagstaff, erected on a point in Sydney Cove, somewhere near where the Paragon hotel now stands. Ivy, NORMAN SELFE. During Governor .Phillip’s administration Surveyor Alt also appears to have designed and superintended the erection of, the following buildings :—Brickworks at Brickfield Hill; a strong wooden girder bridge to carry Bridge-street across the stream at Pitt-street ; Military Barracks and Buildings, 60 ft. by 72 ft. near the present General Post Office; and two of the original barrack buildings which were on the west of Wynyard Square. The proposal to build Government House on the ridge overlooking Darling Harbour near the barracks being abandoned, he com- menced its erection at Phillip-street and Bridge-street ; it. will be remembered that the foundation stone of this building was unearthed in March of last year. Other works were a log gaol, large public and military storehouses, a guard house, and two public wharves. Surveyor-General Alt not only deepened the stream which flowed from swampy ground near to Park-street into Sydney Cove, and which supplied Sydney with water for thirty years afterwards, but he planned the excavation near to Hunter-street of the tanks in its sandstone bed which gave it the name of the “ Tank Stream.” _ The first tank was near the junction of Hunter and Spring-street, it held 7,996 gallons, and had a well in the centre 15 ft. deep, © and the records inform us that a crowd assembled to see the water turned into it when it was finished. With regard to road making this pioneer appears to have laid out the whole line from Dawes Point through the young town, to the top of Brickfield Hill, (then in the country), and from thence to Parramatta. This town was also laid out by Alt, and most of its public buildings, such as the hospital and granaries, were part of his work. Many men of far less note and importance than Alt have monuments to them of — some kind or other. The only place where the name of our first engineer seems to be perpetuated, is in “ Alt-street,” Ashfield, where two grants of land aggregating 330 acres were made to him. In 1797 Surveyor-General Alt was invalided on account of his impaired eyesight, he died on January 9th 1815, and was buried at Parramatta. ANNUAL ADDRESS. V. Alt’s successor was Mr. Charles Grimes, who had been Surveyor at Norfolk Island, and thence forward he carried on the surveys, and prepared plans for public buildings, besides laying out new roads. One of these roads extended from Parramatta to Mulgrave on the Hawkesbury River, where a very early settlement was established. Mr. Grimes lived at Parramatta, where he was for some years a resident magistrate. In Governor King’s time, Francis Barrallier, an Ensign of the New South Wales Corps, who had studied engineering and sur- veying, was given charge of the batteries and defences of the harbour. He designed the Parramatta Orphanage and made the first survey of the Hunter River in June 1801. Before the end © of the same year he was surveying Western Port, in what is now Victoria. In 1802 he made made two trips over part of the Blue Mountains. It is apparently only by the recent researches that have been made, and which have resulted in Barrallier’s charts being unearthed, that his forgotten name and works are now again on record. Ensign George Bellasis succeeded Barrallier as Artillery Officer, he appears to have built the Battery on Dawes Point, and to have been engaged with batteries on Middle Head and Georges Head, _ as well as one on Benelong Point, now Fort Macquarie. : 1804 Governor King began Fort Phillip on the Flagstaff Hill. In 1806 Lieutenant W. Minchin, Engineer and Artillery Officer, carried on the Fort Phillip work, and also built or repaired a stone bridge at Bridge-street which had replaced the timber bridge of Alt. This small stone arch as finally rebuilt in 1811 by Macquarie, is clearly seen in one of the early prints of the town of Sydney that has lately been reproduced. During the interregnum of Grose and Patterson, and the Governorship of Hunter and King, the directions of the Home Office with regard to reserving the whole of the town of Sydney for the Crown, were violated. Phillip had acted up to his instruc- tions, and had established a Common, which included what is now VI. NORMAN SELFE. Hyde Park and the Domain ; but his successors disposed of nearly half the township by leases which practically amounted to grants. Bligh, who was Governor from August, 1806, to January, 1808, found the public reserve covered by huts and farms, and began . Operations to restore it to the Crown by cancelling leases of reserved lands, notably that on Church Hill, leased to Mae Arthur. Trespassers on the Domain —which then came up to Phillip-street —were warned, and many who did not move had their buildings razed. Deputy Surveyor-General Meehan was then instructed by Bligh to prepare a new plan of the town, which provided, for the first. time, for a proper aligning of the streets. Previously to this, the tenements were set down at the sweet will of the occupier, and more or less in line, in what were known as ‘*‘The Rows.” This was all changed under Meehan, but Governor Bligh’s drastic reform brought him into conflict with the military, and led to a suspension of the civil authority—this is a matter of common history. Suveyor-General Grimes (who had in the meantime surveyed Port Hunter, Port Stephen, and Bass’ Straits) afterwards took a trip to England, and on his return joined the military faction in its opposition to Bligh’s policy. Grimes then was again sent to England with Major Johnstone’s despatches in connection with the deposition of Governor Bligh. The military rule which followed under Major Johnstone, Colonel Foveaux, and Colonel Paterson, seems to have led to | another period of non-progress, during which engineers were at a discount, and public works at a standstill. With the advent of Governor Macquarie, on January Ist, 1810, everything was changed, material progress became the order of the day, and engineering came to the front again. 7 It would be impossible to enumerate here the whole of the public works executed under the sway of this progressive ruler,. for, including those in Tasmania, the list fills ten pages of a ANNUAL ADDRESS. VII. Parliamentary report, the number is over two hundred and fifty, and many of them were of such a character that they are still in existence. Macquarie encouraged the formation of regular streets and modified his original views as to width by making them sixty feet instead of fifty. Healso made substantial grants of land to those who built to plans approved by him. Mr. William Greenway was the Civil Engineer of this epoch, and his works include the original Macquarie Light-house (recently pulled down), St. James’ Church, the Hyde Park Barracks, the Benevolent Asylum, the Public Instruction Department building, an adjoining building pulled down to make way for the Lands’ Office, the Police Court (after- wards the Post Office in George-street), and the Market House (afterwards the Central Police Office, recently pulled down to make way for the Queen Victoria Markets). A host of others are still standing, but many have disappeared with the progress of the State. Two books, containing a number of very neat draw- ings of public works, by Mr. Greenway, together with their bills of quantities, still exist in the Government Architect’s Department, and are most interesting records of our early days. There appears to have been a third volume, which has unfortunately been lost. Whether Macquarie’s ideas were too advanced for his masters in England, or whether Mr. Greenway was too energetic, and produced public works in advance of the demand for them, cannot with certainty be decided now; but it is certain that on September 25th of the year 1819, Mr. Thomas Bigge arrived from England with the King’s Commission, with the result that a great many of the Governor’s plans were either modified or thrown out altogether. Bigge considered wooden buildings to be good enough for a convict colony, he stopped all further progress with the cathedral Mr. Greenway had designed for the site at the corner of George and Bathurst-streets, although the foundations were in. The Court House was then being built, as well as St. James Church, the tower and spire of which were added in after years. VIII. NORMAN SELFE, Macquarie being thus frustrated in his efforts to make Sydney a model city, and blamed for his lavish expenditure, did not give up his ideas all at once ; for he afterwards built without one penny of cost to the Crown, the great hospitals in Macquarie-street, the public section of which did duty for over eighty years, and has only recently disappeared. Opinions of course differ as to Mac- quarie’s methods, Lord Liverpool censured him for them, but it is certain that the Imperial Government would never have found the £30,000 which he raised and expended on the Macquarie-street buildings. As a matter of history the Governor contracted with Messrs. Darcy Wentworth, G. Blaxcell, and A. Riley, in 1810, that they should have the right of buying fifteen thousand gallons of rum free of duty, asa return for erecting these structures. This work occupied five years, and although the central hospital has gone, the other sections are still in existence as part of Parliament House, and the Mint facade. The Water Supply of Sydney.—Early historians speak of the fairy dells which graced the valley of the Tank Stream in the course of its short run; and they tell us of its great natural beauty, with wild flowers and ferns, and its banks fringed with heavy timber. There are few of us who are not sufficiently acquainted with similar gems of Australian undergrowth, as to be able to form a mental picture of this watercourse as it presented itself to the arrivals by the First Fleet. Governor Phillip ordered that no trees should be cut down within fifty feet of the water run of this stream. At the present day the General Post Office and other conspicuous buildings extend right over its valley from bank to bank, and there is nothing whatever above ground to even indicate its site. Our first Governor also took steps to secure the water from pollution, in 1791 he had an intercepting ditch dug on each side to keep out the surface drainage, and a fence erected for the protection of the beautiful shrubs within the area. When Phillip left the colony on December 10th, 1792, and the Civil Government was changed to a Military Oligarchy under Captains Grose and Patterson, all Phillip’s precautions seem to ANNUAL ADDRESS. Ix. have been set at naught. The new rulers allowed their followers and others to build close to the stream, to keep pigs, and generally to pollute the water supply of the settlement, On Governor Hunter assuming command in 1795, he restored the Civil Government, and in October had the fences repaired ; he also abolished the pig-styes and the direct paths to the water. Orders were issued that people dipping from the stream, and not going to the Tanks, would be punished by having their houses pulled down, and such orders were repeated up to 1799, when the Governor pointed out that many deaths had resulted from the pollution of the waters. He then appointed a special constable to report daily on the fences and gardens which abutted on the stream. Governor King, between 1800 and 1806, like his predecessors, was horrified to find persons cleansing fish and washing clothes, besides keeping pigs, on the borders of the stream. He appears to have been a quick-tempered gentleman, for he punished some - offenders by pulling down their houses, others were fined £5, while old offenders were flogged and sent on to the roads. Governor Bligh was also very determined about the preserva- tion of this water supply, and his action in this matter may have hastened his deposition by the offending military officers before referred to. With the Governor got rid of, the military power was again uppermost, and all sorts of irregularities were apparently resumed, for on Governor Macquarie’s arrival he found many evidences of civilisation (?) upon the watershed. These included a brewery, a distillery, a tannery, and a dye-works, all of which had been erected within a short distance of the banks of the stream which supplied the town. In 1810 he issued an order that no such industries, and no slaughter-houses, should be erected on or near this stream, and that those already there should be suppressed. Major-General Sir Thomas Brisbane was Governor from 1821 to 1825, and during his reign the pollution of the stream still ». ae NORMAN SELFE. went on, and it is recorded that in 1826, during Governor Darling’s. administration, half-a-dozen boys were caught swimming in the water supply of the town. At the time of the writer’s first arrival in the State, the stream was still quite open to Hunter-street, and it could be seen at: intervals still higher up the town, but it had become a sewer. One of the last cottages on its banks was occupied by the late Mr. Bayliss, the lighterman, on the western side of Hamilton-lane. As the adjoining ground was raised by the reclamation, an upper storey was added to his house, which opened to the level of Hamilton-lane, and the original apartments became practically cellars. The Tunnel, or Busby’s Bore.—In March, 1823, Mr. Thomas. Busby was engaged by Earl Bathurst for three years, and sent out to New South Wales as Mineral Surveyor and Civil Engineer, at a salary of £200 a year and his passage expenses. On his arrival in February, 1824, he was instructed by Governor Brisbane: to look into the question of a water supply for Sydney. After . levels had been taken by Messrs. Hoddle and Finch—who, with Govett and others, were assistant surveyors—it was determined to drive a tunnel from the Lachlan Swamps (now part of the Centennial Park) to the south-east corner of Hyde Park. The work was commenced in September, 1827; Mr. Busby’s son Alexander (afterwards a successful squatter), was appointed assis- tant engineer at £100 per annum, on the 25th August; and on December 7th, 1826, Mr. Thomas Busby was re-engaged by the local Government, with his salary advanced to £300 a year. The length of the tunnel is two and a quarter miles, but owing to the springs tapped on the way, water was supplied to the Hyde Park reservoir long before the swamps were reached. The drive was to be five feet high by four feet wide; and the twenty-eight shafts from which it was worked were all shewn on the maps of Sydney which were current forty-five years ago. The original excavation is given at 255,930 cubic feet, which gives an average section of twenty-two feet. The total cost, including salaries of ANNUAL ADDRESS. XI. engineers and other expenses, was £22,971, which works out to about £2 8s. per cubic yard. As the natural catchment of the portion of the swamps drained by the tunnel was only about two square miles, and as abundance of water close handy was running to waste across the Randwick- road and lower swamps to Botany Bay; subsequently, when the requirements of the city increased, an engine was erected at the road-side, near to the present Racecourse, to supplement the supply tothe tunnel. My inquiries, so far, have not led to the date when this engine was erected, but it was well known to meas it was sold when the pumping-station was dismantled, and afterwards worked for many years in the steamer “Quandong,” designed by me for the Balmain ferry. This was the first local steam vessel built with two sterns instead of two bows, and the one which led to the complete revolution since made in connection with the Sydney ferries. As the Hyde Park end of the tunnel is 104 ft. above high water-mark, the principal part of the then city was well supplied by gravitation ; but the water-cart was a great institu- tion, and in the early “Fifties” twopence was the common price per bucket for the water. The hydrant fountain at Hyde Park was a centre of great activity during the summer months. This supply fell into disuse when the Botany Waterworks, projected by the City Commissioners, were opened in 1858. It is not desirable with the limited time at our disposal to go into details about the Botany engines, which for nearly forty years supplied Sydney with water. On the completion of the Prospect scheme their occupation was gone, and they were sold practically for old iron, together with a modern high speed auxiliary com- pound engine pumping plant, which was designed by the author for the City Council in the water famine scare of 1885-1886. This was a very notable work from the fact that it was made, erected, and put to work by the Atlas Company in sixty days from acceptance of tender. The three great beam-engines with their 40 in. steam cylinders in operation, were for many years, the greatest engineering sight of Sydney, but now with the exception XII, NORMAN SELFE. of one set of valve gear, which at the request of the Engineering Association, the purchaser Mr. presented to the Techno- logical Museum, they were all broken up for old metal.—Sic transit gloria mundi. Major Mitchell and Mount Victoria.—For some time after the Blue Mountains were first crossed in 1813, by Messrs. Wentworth, Lawson, and Blaxland, the descent into the Vale of Clwyd was right over the brow of “ Big Mount York”; but the exact direction is now scarcely traceable in the worst places. This track was succeeded by the notable road made in Macquarie’s time by William Cox, J.P. of Windsor, who in 1815 took the Governor to Bathurst over the new pass, which by means of convict labour he had completed in six months. This road descended by zig-zags into the valley running parallel to Darling Causeway, still known to the people of Hartly Vale as “Long Alley.” It turns off from the Western Road at One Tree Hill (now Mount Victoria) and comes out at the Kerosene Mines; its formation must have involved for the period, an immense amount of labour and blasting. It is still negociable with a saddle horse, althongh the walls have given way in places, and trunks of big trees lie across the track. Since the establishment of the Hartly Vale platform on the railway, and the formation of a new road down thence into the vale, tourists and sightseers have this Long Alley road pretty much to themselves. In 1827, during the Governorship of Lieutenant-General Darling, Major Mitchell, the Surveyor-General, proposed to con- struct a new pass down into the Vale of Clwyd by a deviation to the south of Mount York. In 1829 Major Lockyer, the Surveyor of Roads and Bridges, opposed this scheme on economical grounds, and it led to Governor Darling appointing a Commission to enquire into the matter. This resulted in the Mount Victoria route being adopted, and to Mr. John Nicholson, a Manchester Engineer, being appointed to the charge of roads and bridges under the Surveyor-General. . The great work was then put in hand of cutting down the hill | sides and building up the walls for the Pass of Mount Vittoria, ANNUAL ADDRESS. ~ XIII. as it was called in honour of Wellington’s then recent Peninsula victory. The work was under the direction of Mr. Phillip Elliot as assistant engineer in charge. Although the history of this pass, (the name of which ‘has been since changed to Mount Vic- toria) is often discussed, it does not seem to be generally known how very far Major Lockyer had actually proceeded with the road which he favoured, before his route was abandoned for that of Major Mitchell. Over thirty years ago, when the author was engaged in opening up the Kerosene Mines near Hartley, and in laying out and constructing the company’s railways and incline up the mountain, to connect with the Government railway, his Sunday excursions made him well acquainted with this mountain district, and on one or two occasions led him to the recesses of the bush where the remains of Major Lockyer’s great rival pass to Mount Victoria are to be found. All along the ridge of the eastern branch of Mount York, there were hundreds of stumps, and the clean unfilled holes from which they had been grubbed forty years before, entirely undisturbed. Further on and down in the dark heavily timbered gorge which lies in the forked ends of this spur of the mountain, there were lengths of lofty stone walls. These walls had been built to hold up the projected road, like those at Mount Victoria where the cross section was too steep to allow an ordinary siding on the face of the mountain. No description of these remains has, so far as the author is aware, ever appeared in print. It is said that faction fights waxed fiercely over the respective merits of these mountain routes seventy years ago, and the opinion has often been expressed in the district, that if the engineer for roads had been left to carry out his own proposal he would have secured .quite as satisfactory if not better results, than were «ttained in the more favoured and pretentious scheme of the Surveyor-General. One thing seems certain from the published accounts, that the labour and time which Major Mitchell estimated woula be required to fully complete his road, did not suffice to make even a practicable bridle track into the valley. XIV. NORMAN SELFE. Perhaps the most notable work left by Major Mitchell is his beautiful three sheet feature map of the settled portion of New South Wales; this was engraved in the colony by Carmichael in 1834, and afterwards republished in London. The details of the features are said to be largely due to Mr. Assistant Surveyor Govett, the gentleman whose name is perpetuated by the waterfall at Blackheath. About Mr. Govett’s doings the wildest stories are told, although his original sketches, still preserved, shew that he was a very hard worked man like ourselves. Mitchell utilised Govett’s surveys of these mountain districts, and certainly no other map, up to the present, exhibits the physical characteristics of New South Wales so clearly. Having so far dealt with the progress of Civil Engineering in the young colony, let us for a while turn our attention to its advancement in the mechanical branches. Mechanical Engineering in New South Wales—The First Mills.— Nothing seems to have thrown more responsibility upon the shoulders of the first Governors than the maintenance of the food supply for the young settlement; for, notwithstanding the despatch of vessels to the Cape and elsewhere, circumstances brought it to the brink of starvation several times. Bread being the staff of life, the ground was cultivated at once, and a farm was established where the Botanic Gardens now flourish (hence the name of Farm Cove). Grain was also grown, with seed brought by the new arrivals, at Rosehill (afterwards Parramatta). To convert grain into meal however, involves a mechanical process, even if it is only crushing itina mortar. Next to that crude operation comes -the hand-mill of metal or stone, and then follows the mill driven by power, which power may be obtained from the work of men, or horses, or cattle, or be supplied by the action.of wind, water, or steam. At the beginning of the century, the mechanical engineer as we now know him, was only in embryo; and probably the most important craftsman of the day, certainly so far as the «conversion of food products is concerned, was the now fast dis- appearing millwright. Although it is an out-of-date calling at ANNUAL ADDRESS. XV. present, the author is rather proud that one of the conditions embodied in his articles of apprenticeship—which he duly fulfilled —was that he should be taught the arts and crafts of a millwright. With the the first fleet there arrived a few implements for grinding corn, but the want of mills for that purpose is specially alluded to in many of Governor Phillip’s despatches to England. In 1791, when Lieutenant-Governor King was returning to the colony in the “Gorgon,” he secured four pairs of mill-stones for hand power, at the Cape of Good Hope, to take the place of the original iron mills by that time rendered useless. Phillip had forcibly represented to the Home authorities that windmills were an absolute necessity, as the existing mills required so much labour, and in May, 1792, the British Government entered intoa contract with Mr. Thomas Allan, an employee in the King’s mills at Rotherhite, for a period of four years. Allen’s salary was £52 10s. per annum as “ Master Miller” of New South Wales; he came out in the “ Royal Admiral,” and commenced duty in the colony on the 6th October, 1792. Soon after his arrival in Sydney, Allen was sent to Parramatta to manage a mill about to be erected there. On 16th January, 1793, a millwright named James Thorpe arrived in Sydney from England, also under agreement with the British Government; he was,called the ‘Master Millwright,” and was placed under Allen the miller in a building used as a mill. On 16th February, 1793, Governor Grose wrote to the Right Hon. Henry Dundas, “I am sorry to say I do not expect much benefit from this man; he is by no means as expert as he pretends to be.” Early in October, 1793, the four pounds of wheat which had served as rations to the people was discontinued, and rice was substituted, it being intended to save the wheat for the purpose of having it properly milled and distributed as flour. The primitive attempts at colonial mill making had up to this time all failed, owing, it was said, to the native timber employed being unseasoned. The records speak of the cogs breaking on this account as soon as the wheels began to work, but probably the shrinking of the timber of which the mortise wheels themselves XVI. NORMAN SELFE. were built was more to blame than the shrinking of the cogs, because that would throw the whole gear out of truth. One of the prisoners who came to the colony in 1790, named James Wilkinson, was found to possess abilities as a millwright. Acting-Governor Grose, who sent for him, expressed surprise that his knowledge as a millwright had lain dormant so long. Wilkinson soon let it be known that his opinion of Thorpe’s abilities was a very poor one, and that he was desirous of entering into competi- tion with the official artificer. The Governor thereupon determined to give him a chance of shewing what he could do, and promised to well reward him if he turned out a workable mill on a fairly large scale. Wilkinson went to work, and after some time pro- duced a “walking machine,” the principal wheel of which was 15 ft. in diameter. This was operated by two men walking inside it, and was probably similar to the wheels of the old cranes at the London docks, before they were superseded by mechanical power. When the author used to visit these docks some fifty years ago, he has been in these wheels and been allowed to have a “walk” through the good offices of his guides. In the construction of Wilkin- son’s walking mill, the heavy part of the labour, such as cutting and bringing in the timber and preparing it, was performed by his fellow prisoners without charge, they being delighted that one of their own class was being brought into competition with Thorpe, the official millwright. Some idea may be formed of the amount of labour expended on this experiment from the fact that it took three months and five days to perfect the work. When the time arrived for its first trial, early in October, 1793, there was quite a ceremony. It was found, however, to be anything but satisfactory, the old excuse being repeated that the timber was not properly seasoned. | In grinding, its efficiency was very variable; at first it only ground two bushels, but afterwards with some alterations it produced four bushels of meal per hour. Governor Grose, however, was at the outset delighted with the result, and under date 12th October, 1793, in writing to the Secretary of State, on the subject of the ANNUAL ADDRESS. XVII. corn crops supplying the wants of the ensuing year said, “and I have further the satisfaction to say that a convict carpenter, whose abilities have hitherto been concealed, has, for the hopes of reward, completed a most capital mill; equal to grind as much corn as can be consumed here. This is now at work, and has already contributed greatly to our comforts.” But the Governor spoke before he was sure, and was destined to disappointment, for the mill ground less day after day, until at the end of the month scarcely a bushel an hour could be obtained from it. There appears to have been a concensus of opinion however, that if the mill had been on a larger scale the machinery would have given much better results. Wilkinson then again interviewed Governor Grose, whom he convinced that he knew what the defects were, and said he would undertake to build another mill, at Sydney, on a much larger scale and upon an improved plan. The Governor not only humoured Wilkinson, but arranged that artificers and a gang of convicts should be brought down from Parramatta to a place which he had called Petersham ; here a large timber yard, two hundred feet square was formed in which the timber for the mill was to be cut and seasoned for use. Sixty acres of Government ground were also cleared, and twenty of them sown with Indian corn for this mill; nine huts for the labouring people were also built, and in December, Wilkinson commenced his second experiment. The want of a flour mill was at this time evidently severely felt, because not only the convicts but the military also had to grind their own grain. Wilkinson’s non success with his first mill, and his being allowed to make a second attempt, brought other millwrights into the field as rivals. Among these was an emancipist, named John Baughan, who pro- posed to build a machine on a different principle to that of Wilkinson. He was considered to be one of the most ingenious men in Sydney, and had the advantage of being promised assistance by the military artificers. The Governor therefore decided that two mills should be constructed and erected on the old marine parade ground, which was on the south side of Bridge-street. 2—June 20, 1900. XVIII. NORMAN SELFE, In December Wilkinson and Baughan had both got up the frames and roofs of their respective mill houses, and while waiting for them to be tiled, they proceeded with the construction of their machines. By February 1794 Baughan’s mill house was roofed in, and on the 10th of March, 1794, (the same day as the vessel “William” arrived with two pairs of mill stones and a dressing machine) the first trial of his handiwork was made. At first the mill went very heavily, but after a few days it ground 53 Ibs. of wheat in seventeen minutes, with the labour of nine men who worked it by means of capstan bars walking in a circle. Wilkinson’s second mill was started a month later near the close of April 1794, it was much larger than his first one at Parramatta, being worked by six men instead of two, and the diameter of the wheel in which the men walked was 22 ft. instead of 15 ft. Owing, however, to the number and variety of the wheels in Wilkinson’s machinery, something was always going wrong. Governor Grose gave it a fair trial, and then on the advice of those who worked both mills it was condemned. Baughan’s mill was found to be the superior, and Wilkinson much crestfallen was returned to Parramatta. Governor Hunter, who assumed the reins of office on September 11th, 1795, brought with him on his return to the colony in H.M.S. “Reliance,” the most material parts of a windmill, and a model to assist in its completion and erection. In May, 1796, Thorpe, the millwright was employed in collecting and preparing the timber for completing this mill at Parramatta, but he quarrelled with the Governor over the work before he had finished his engagement in July of that year. He appears to have been a failure in more ways than one, and he was dispensed with. The Governor, however, was much pleased to find a millwright on board the “ Marquis Cornwallis,” and in May 1796, he laid the first stone of a windmill. The last stone of this first windmill tower was laid in December of the same year, and sufficient of the machinery was erected to test it in February 1797. With half of its sails, and one pair of stones, it ground wheat at the rate of. ANNUAL ADDRESS. XIX. six bushels an hour; but it was many months before it was finished. After the completion of this windmill others followed rapidly, both at Sydney and at Parramatta, as Governor Hunter and his successors seemed to be much impressed with their efficiency. Those who take an interest in the early pictures of Sydney will remember that windmills are very prominent objects in the views of the town. The site of the first windmill was on top of the hill at Charlotte Place—a little to the south of where the Grosvenor Hotel now stands—the ground is however now very much cut down from its original height. The second one was erected somewhere between the Observatory and the Fort-street School. After this the ridge east of Macquarie-street was surmounted by windmills, and lastly the Darlinghurst ridge, until in 1822 there were at least nine windmills in the city. The author does not remember more than three in the city, besides those on the Waverley road. Soon after the last of these windmills disappeared, an interesting but very - imperfect account of them appeared in a daily paper, but their full history remains to be written. Water Mills —In May, 1823, Governor Brisbane granted six hundred acres of land at Botany to Mr. Simeon Lord, who had been an enterprising auctioneer and shipowner. This grant took in the mouth of the Lachlan Swamp, where the waters discharged into Botany Bay, and here Mr. Lord determined to erect a water mill. He had no sooner received his grant in 1824 than he con- structed a mill dam, and then put up a wheel, which worked a fine and substantial brick and stone flour mill for very many years. He built the first house at Botany on Ti-tree piles, in consequence of the swampy nature of the ground. He also put up a tweed factory, and erected cottages near it for his employees. The works: were continued until 1856, when the property was taken over in connection with the new Sydney water supply. A new dam was then built, and the mill-pond, when remodelled, became the supply reservoir for the pumping engines. At this time Mr. Castella’s wool-wash, Mr. Darvell’s tannery, and various other works estab- XX. NORMAN SELFE. lished by Cooper and Levey along the Lachlan stream, were also suppressed, and Sydney for many years had one of the purest water supplies in the world from that source. The only other water mill near Sydney, of which the writer can find any record, was at Paddington, in Barcom Glen, fitted up by Thomas Westin 1813. This mill, apparently, had an overshot wheel, and must have been fed by a comparatively small stream. No details have been found of this, but there is an illustration of Lord’s mill in the ‘‘ Picture of Sydney,” published in 1838, which shows a large weatherboard building and a breast-wheel. The accompanying description states that sixty persons were employed at the works in the manufacture of wool into tweed, blankets, etc. The first settlers were much struck with the possibilities of manufacturing flax from the native plants. In 1799 four men were constantly employed making and repairing spinning wheels and looms. In 1805 two flax looms were weaving fabrics, but as we know the industry never became a permanent one. The First Steam Engine in Australia.—The first steam engine in Australia, of which any record has been found, was imported by Mr. John Dickson in the vessel ‘“‘EKarl Spencer.” This was erected soon after it was landed and started in the presence of the Governor, on the 28th May, 1815, in what was then a large mill which Mr. Dickson had built at the bottom of Goulburn-street, close to the waters of Darling Harbour. It was for many years afterwards known as “ Dickson’s Steam Engine,” and is so indi- cated on old maps of Sydney. JDickson’s mill is still standing and working, at the western end of Goulburn-street. Originally it was near the centre of a grant of fifteen acres three roods and four perches, and close to a wharf that ran a long way out into waters of the harbour; but this water frontage has long since been reclaimed, and the streets laid out upon it are a busy part of the city now. May, of 1815, must have been a momentous month for Sydney, because it not only saw the arrival of the first steam engine, but witnessed the important journey of William ANNUAL ADDRESS. XXI. Cox, of Windsor, when he took Governor Macquarie to Bathurst over the new Blue Mountain road already referred to. A very antiquated old beam engine is still working at Dickson’s mill, and it is said that some of the original condenser, and other parts, are in the foundations yet. It has, however, for many years worked ‘‘non-condensing,” perhaps because the waters of the harbour (continually receding as reclamations were made) at last became too far away for the cold water pump. In spite of the generally ancient garb which this engine wears, it is evident to an expert eye that several of its most important parts are modern. This mill has been known by many names since Dickson made himself famous by his enterprise; but, alas for the instability of such fame! Dickson-street, which at least should perpetuate his memory, as it runs through his original grant, has recently, by some municipal vagary, had its spelling changed to Dixon-street. The Second Steam Flour Mill.—After a lapse of eight years, the second steam flour mill appears to have been established in the year 1823 by Mr. Thomas Barker, who was a most successful mercantile man, and afterwards a member of the Legislature. This mill was erected about four hundred feet from the corner of Bathurst and Sussex-streets, and as steam engines were at this date, and even for ten years later, of great importance in public estimation, this mill—like Dickson’s—was known as Barker’s “Steam Engine,” and both are so distinguished on the early maps of the town printed with the Sydney Directory as late as the year 1838. | Barker’s mill stood on the grant of nearly seven acres, which was made to him, and comprised nearly all the block bounded by Bathurst-street, Sussex-street, Liverpool-street, and the waters of Darling Harbour. There were not a dozen houses in the locality at the time, and there were only two other wharves, besides the one which Mr. Barker built, in the whole of Darling Harbour. About the year 1830, Mr. Barker erected two new flour mills alongside his original one, and it was in those days considered a colossal undertaking. The work was so well done that the XXII. NORMAN SELFE. principal building is still in regular use. When I knew these mills first, the early condensing beam engines were still working, that at the eastern end driving a tweed factory. Old fashioned ‘‘wagon” boilers continued to furnish the steam, and the stand pipe for automatically supplying the feed water to it (at low pressure) had not then given way to a modern feed pump. The flour mill was at the end of the building next the harbour, the waters of which, as at Dickson’s mill, had gradually receded so far away by the encroachment of the land, as to require new arrangements for the supply of the condensing water and its return to the bay. Mr. Thomas Barker visited England in the year 1837, and there saw further developments in milling machinery some of which he added to the Sydney mills on his return in 1840. Steam mills henceforward multiplied fast both in the city and country. From a record of October 15th, 1829, we learn that the Darling mills at Parramatta, (now and for many years past con- verted into a tweed factory) were able to grind 1,000 bushels a week, and had just made such extensive purchases of grain as to account for the scanty supply on the previous Thursday at the Sydney market. On the 13th Sepember, 1829, Mr. Singleton who gave his name to the well known northern railway town, advertised that his “John” mills on the Williams River are now in full work, to grind grain and return the meal, for 15d. sterling per bushel. He characteristically adds, ‘‘If the money is not sent toll will be taken at the market price of the day.” Mr. John Portus arrived in Australia by the ship ‘‘ Hugh Crawford,” in April 1825, from the well known firm of R. and W. Hawthorne, of Newcastle on Tyne, and at once set to work erect- ing machinery for Surveyor-General John Oxley at Camden, afterwards proceeding with the machinery for Mr. Macqueen at Kirkham, which was the object of his coming out. He was for years the leading millwright and engineer of the Hunter River district, making and erecting machinery for Segenhoe, Luskintyre, and other well known northern estates. In 1831 Mr. Portus ANNUAL ADDRESS. XXIII. started in business on his own account and erected a horse power flour mill at Black Creek, and afterwards designed and constructed a novel arrangement of bullock power motor. This consisted of a circular platform on a large bevel-wheel thirty feet diameter, which geared into the pinion of the driving shaft. The axis of the large wheel and circular platform was inclined about fifteen degrees from the perpendicular, and the bullocks being yoked up in such a position that they were always walking up hill, the platform revolved under their feet and gave motion to the machinery, just as it does in more modern horse powers which have endless chain platforms. Mr. Portus went to Morpeth in 1838 and started the erection of the well known steam mill in that town, with which he and his sons were for so many years associated, until he gave up business in 1855. It may be interesting to note that the castings for this steam mill were made by Mr. William Bourne, of Sussex-street, the engineer who brought out the “‘Sophia Jane” with Lieutenant Biddulph in May, 183], and who afterwards opened a machine shop near the Market Wharf; but Mr. Portus, senior, fitted up and erected all the more important parts of the machinery with his own hands. Unlike many other names herein referred to, and which have died out, the name of Portus is still well known in Australian engineering circles. By the year 1838, there were, on the authority of the “Picture of Sydney,” eight flour mills working in Sussex-street alone. The First Australian Foundry.—The first foundry of which any record has been found was carried on by Mr. James Blanch, who originally had a grant near to Dickson’s mill at Darling Harbour, where he was established in 1821. In 1823 he had an engineer’s shop and foundry ona grant of one rood nineteen and a half perches next to the Royal Hotel, George-street. From information, accom- panied by a photograph, which has been obtained by the author, it appears that there is at Dapto, in the remains of an early flour mill, a very old beam steam engine made by Blanch. This pioneer was succeeded by the enterprising engineer who is now so well XXIV. NORMAN SELFE. known in New South Wales owing to his liberal endowment of the Engineering School at the University of Sydney—Mr. Peter Nicol Russell. During Mr. Russell’s career an era of greater specialism dawned upon the young State, but in Blanch’s time an engineer had to play many parts, all of which he (Blanch) was evidently quite willing to undertake, for we read in his advertisement that he could accommodate his friends with best double tin work; make handsome dish-covers, equal to any made in London; brass, iron, and foundry work, as usual; and, oh! what a fall for a finish— ‘‘umbrellas and parasols neatly repaired.” In 1833 Mr. Richard Dawson established the Australian Foundry at 622 Lower George-street, and it appears to have been the first important iron foundry in Australia, for in the forties he was able to produce single castings up to four tons weight. In 1837 he made, on the premises, a high pressure steam engine of eight horse power, which was used to drive the machinery of the establishment and was considered by Sydney people at the time a marvel of mechanism; and ran smoothly for more than twenty years afterwards. Dawson in many branches was the pioneer machinist of Australia. The arrangement of his blacksmith’s shop made a considerable impression on visitors forty-five years ago. The Governor of the day and the leading people in the colony often visited Dawson’s works, and his advice and services were in demand by mill owners, masters of ships, and squatters using wool presses, etc. Mr. Dawson was a prominent parish- ioner at old St. Philip’s church. His business was carried on after his death until it was purchased and wound up by the late Mr. T.S. Mort. When the Kerosene Works on the Botany road were being erected by the author thirty years ago, the large cast-iron gothic head to the main chimney shaft was designed by him, and was one of the last works executed at Dawson’s establishment. Since the foregoing remarks were penned, the H’ngineer for the 4th of last month (May 1900) has reached Sydney. It contains a very full account of the porte! le coffer-dam which was made by ANNUAL ADDRESS. XXV, Mr. Dawson nearly half a century ago to enable the stern frame of the General Screw Steam Shipping Co’s. ship ‘‘Creesus” to be got at. This steamer arrived in Sydney harbour badly damaged in the year 1853, at which time there was no graving dock in the port and the repairs to this vessel were carried out by Mr. Dawson or ‘Dicky Dawson” as he was then generally called. The work accomplished was thought so much of, that it was often talked about after the author arrived in the colony two years later, and an account of it is now republished as a notable event in the annals of engineering and navigation. In the Sydney papers of October 10th, 1829, it was announced that Mr. J. White who had lately arrived from England, was an engineer of great experience, his place of business adjoining the Royal Hotel in George-street. (This must have been on the north side, as Blanch was on the south). Mr. White undertook all kinds of engineer work and hydraulic pumps, and was equally at home with weighing machines, engines, cranes, and water closets. His newly invented lamp for lighting the public streets was only to be had direct from his works. He was evidently a large importer of ironmonger’s sundries, and was also an inventor. His adver- tisement states that there is a filtering machine kept in use on his premises for inspection by the public. Inventors of those days were no more free from plagiarists and pirates than they are now, for in a subsequent notification, Mr. White warns his friends that there is a spurious imitation of his filtering machine in the neighbourhood, and trusts that a discerning public will admit that this is the highest praise that could be bestowed on the inventor. He epigrammatically adds ‘‘ Incapable of invention themselves they descend to become copyists.” The poor old Royal Hotel must have been very uncomfortable between these two engineers, complaints being frequent about the smoke from their furnaces, and on St. Patrick’s day 1840, a fire from Blanch’s foundry extended and burnt down the old building, together with Mr. Barnet Levey’s Theatre Royal, which was within its walls. XXVI. NORMAN SELFE. Our consideration of pioneer mechanical engineers may be concluded for the present with the names of John Struth, William Orr, and the members of the firm of P. N. Russell & Co. John Struth was born in Berwickshire, Scotland, on the Ist of January, 1804. He served an apprenticship as an engineer with Messrs. Murray of Chester-le-street, remaining with the firm until 1832, when he sailed for Sydney in the barque ‘“‘ Mountaineer,” arriving in September of that year after a sea passage of nearly nine months. He was first in the employ of Thomas Barker, but after seven years he started, on his own account, a flour mill in Sussex-street. In 1840 he purchased a large block of land abutting on Darling Harbour—known for many years as Struth’s Wharf— now the site of W. Howard Smith & Sons’ southern wharf, and afterwards until the year 1855 he carried on large engine works there for fifteen years. On his retirement, the business was continued by the Messrs. Napier. As far back as 1836 the Sydney Gazette records the boring out of the “Sophia Jane’s” 40 in. cylinder at Mr. Struth’s establishment. The thirty horse power engine of the steamer “ Kangaroo” was made at his works in 1840, and during the same year he fitted the engines of eighty horse power in the colonial steamer ‘‘ Victoria,” built on the Hunter River by Mr. J. Korff. He contracted to keep several of the colonial steamers in repair, and also had contracts with the Municipal Council for water pipes. He cut in two and lengthened a steamer and initiated the North Shore Steam Ferry. Mr. Struth amassed a competency and gave with a liberal hand; among other sums £1,000 to the Presbyterian Church Sustentation, £1,000 to Prince Alfred Hospital, £1,000 to St. Andrew’s College, and to found a University Scholarship £1,000 ; he died in Phillip-street on January ae 1886, aged 82 years; his family motto was “Bro quod eram.’ William Orr commenced business in 1840, he made land and marine engines at his shop in Sussex-street, and in December 1846 he moved to Grose’s Wharf at the foot of Bathurst-street which — he had purchased. Messrs. Young and,jMather appear to have ANNUAL ADDRESS. XXVII. succeeded him at these works, but his patterns apparently went to P. N. Russell—as the author who had charge of the pattern store in the fifties—well remembers Orr’s brand on flour mill patterns at Russell’s. Mr. George Coke’s, engineering establish- ment in 1840 was also in Bathurst-street. The Russell family of engineers—of whom Mr. Peter Nicol Russell, founder of the P. N. Russell School of Engineering at the Sydney University, was the most distinguished member—came from Kirkcaldy, in Fifeshire, Scotland, and with their father Robert Russell the elder, first settled in Hobart Town in 1836; but afew years later they came on to Sydney and had an engineer- ing shop in Queen’s Place. After the death of his father, Mr. Peter Nicol Russell, the second son, commenced business on his own account in 1842 by purchasing the foundry, situated on the south side of the Royal Hotel, from the executors of Mr. James Blanch. Here Peter Nicol Russell established the Sydney Foundry and Engineering Works, while Robert, his elder brother went to Manilla to erect some machinery, and died in 1849. John the third son, was for some time employed at: Daw- son’s works in lower George-street, and afterwards for a few years traded to the islands in the ‘‘Coquette” and “Sarah Ann.” Peter Nicol Russell’s business so increased in George-street, that he established a branch works for engineering and boilermaking at Day’s wharf in Sussex-street, with his younger brother George Russell as manager. By 1854 the business had extended to such a degree that on January Ist, 1855, the firm of P. N. Russell & Co. was launched with establishments at the Sydney Foundry and the Sussex-street Engine Works, as iron and brass founders, engineers, boilermakers, and blacksmiths. Mr. P. N. Russell’s. partners were his brothers John and George, and Mr. James Wilkie Dunlop, a Scotch engineer from Leith. The senior partner, Mr. P. N. Russell left for England shortly after the new firm was launched, in order to recruit his health, and to make arrangements for shipping the supplies required for the ever increasing business, and Mr. Dunlop (a nephew of Wilkie the XXVIII. NORMAN SELFE. painter) was thenceforward and until his retirement in 1863, the engineering head of this famous firm. The author was articled to Mr. Peter Nicol Russell and his three partners in January 1855, and after serving an apprenticeship to practical work in the pattern, millwright, fitting, turning, and erecting shops, was afterwards most of his time in the drawing office, where he became chief draughtsman before the expiry of his articles, and continued with the firm for five years afterwards until Mr. Dunlop retired. While there he prepared plans for numbers of flour mills, and for the first ice-making machines, designing machinery for the multifarious requirements of colonial industries, many of which (such as sheep-washing and boiling down) no longer exist on the old lines The business of this firm increased so rapidly and was so prosperous, that in 1859 they purchased Brodie and Craig’s wharf in Barker-street off Bathurst-street, (since and until lately in the possession of the Adelaide Steam Ship Company). Mr. Peter Nicol Russell returned to Sydney in 1859, when the Bathurst-street works were projected and finally retired from the firm in 1860 to reside in London. The plans for these new works, and also for the wharf, were made by the author; and afterwards the laying out, and superintendence during their construction and erection, was com- mitted to his charge. sen of the beams were built in lime mortar, two of one to two and Figs. 5 and 6. two of one to four, and four in cement mortar of the same pro- portions respectively. Two smaller beams were also built in cement mortar 14 inches long by one and a half bricks wide and three bricks deep. The beams were faced with mortar to true planes where they rested on the end supports, and on the central knife edge through which the loads were applied. The general results are recorded in Table X., and the deflections in Table XL, and the corresponding curves are plotted in Fig. 7. 4. Tests of the materials used in building the piers and beams.— The tests made on the materials used in building the columns and beams consisted of transverse and compressive tests of the bricks and of the various mortars, and also tensile tests of the mortars. The compressive tests of the mortar were made on prisms or slabs, each 6 inches by 6 inches in area, but varying in height or thickness LXVIII. W. H. WARREN AND S. H. BARRACLOUGH. BRICK BEAMS. 08 oa beeed seen a hewen B raves SH He besod bree poved esorarever Bemeabee! eavasapeets porsadercdtvoes (sued feted sera ieaence HEE Eerie Sreereeeed sued peea ized aE HE EE SScreat FEES i caved goed Peeve. sadet Le cost oprereicees ng eH ae Ges evee| Seen epee Eee GREEEETaEe EES TE ® : uu HEATHER EEEEEEEE He qa i eenearsel aa Se Ee petty a 04 iapeseassees cteveseatesevavontey setet store seatesereve aie om 54 eR t t H n meses paeescceca Carey Fete Het S SEEnepreeere! SErsaree Be ei 02 EE = EEA cores wees esdd bes eesesceteseesio ten SES SSS Ea SE SR Eee ain mee cee i. = cee bemeeeees ei Soe eee! fo) = A H 0 EERE 4. oO “B 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Load in tons. Big. i from 12 inches to} inch. The results are recorded in detail in Table XIII. Cross breaking tests of the mortar were made on prisms 2 inches by 2 inches in section, supported at each end and loaded in the centre of a span of 10 inches; the results are recorded in Table XII. Shearing adhesion tests of the mortar were made in which one brick was made to slide relatively to another, to which it was connected by a mortar joint in single shear, or: between two others in double shear as shown in Figs. 10 and 11 (Table XV.). Tests were also made to determine the direct adhesion of discs of brick inserted in the centre of moulds for making mortar briquettes, the adhesion being measured by the tensile stress necessary to separate the mortar from the disc of brick (Table XVI.). Table XVII. gives the results obtained some years ago in regard to the shearing resistance of a particular brand of pressed brick united (as shown in Figs. 10 and 11) with cement. mortar of various kinds, and is reproduced here for purposes of comparison. 5. Conclusion in regard to the compressive tests of brick piers.— The experiments on the strength of brick piers subjected to a compressive load were made in order to ascertain both the crush-. ing strength, and the deformations under equal increments of COMPRESSIVE AND TRANSVERSE STRENGTHS OF BRICKWORK. LXIX. loading. Thus the load applied was increased by equal increments of two tons which on the section of 9 inches by 9 inches was equivalent to about 3°6 tons per square foot, but in spite of the care taken in building the column, the uniformity of the mortar joints, the placing of the column in the machine and the accuracy with which the compressions produced by the load were observed the results obtained were very irregular, and it would appear to be impossible to establish a modulus of elasticity, even for a given brick and mortar. The authors are lead to doubt the possibility of obtaining exact information on this point owing to the impos- sibility of maintaining the conditions sufficiently uniform in building the piers of brickwork or in the bricks themselves. The curves (Figs. 8 and 9) show the loads applied and the compressions produced by them in the long columns. The results for the short columns were more uniform as they were nearly a year old and there were fewer mortar joints, and these had attained a greater strength than those in the longer piers which were generally only four BRICK COLUMNS IN CEMENT MORTAR. 20 Compression in millimeters. +} o FUG 20 ” 30 40 <§0; 60 7o 80 90 100 Load in tons. Fig. 8. LXX. W. H. WARREN AND §. H. BARRACLOUGH. BRICK COLUMNS IN LIME MORTAR. + sation Sof ete rat 49 n eI 30 EF o q Sane - Hr i = . +++ n jp 7 EESEEREEEECoe tor caas = ges copaausaii posssususttrceztaadl &. 20 Sleeiestarle 7) om pee EEEEEEEEE S it Preeti psec °o +4 i ae : a7 r Ly n ae Ht 2 EERE EEE a) aT He HHI +t EEEEETaUREEEEEE ° a Se 'S ae at Oo He tt fr) 70 ~~ ap Load in tons. Fig. 9. months old. On the whole, however, the inconsistencies in the results are considerable and difficult to explain. The crushing strengths obtained were more satisfactory, and may be taken as showing the load necessary to produce the first indications of failure, which always appeared as a fine crack or cracks, visible under a large magnifying glass. Sometimes these cracks would appear on one side only, but more frequently on all four sides at about the same time. The loads were applied slowly, giving just time to observe and book the readings of the extenso- meters, and in some cases the loads which might be expected to produce fracture were maintained for times varying from five minutes to fourteen days. When fracture occurred nearly all the bricks were broken. Taking the average of the five tests made on cement mortar piers, the load producing cracks is 172 tons per COMPRESSIVE AND TRANSVERSE STRENGTHS OF BRICKWORK, LXXI. square foot for mortar comprised of one part of Portland cement to two parts of the coarse river sand, and of the four tests made with mortar of the same materials, but in the proportion of one to four the load was 149 tons per square foot. Brickwork in cement is generally built with mortar comprised of one part of cement to three parts of sand, but the materials of the mortar and the workmanship are not generally as good as in the test piers. The bricks, however, are generally as good as these used, and occasionally better. Taking all these circumstances into consider- ation it appears that the crushing strength of ordinary good brick- work in cement mortar is about 150 tons per square foot, and the safe load may be taken at least from 15 to 20 tons per square foot. In lime mortar brickwork the average of three tests of the same bricks with mortar comprised of one part of stone lime to two parts of the same sand was 85 tons per square foot; and with mortar comprised of one part of lime to four parts of sand was 46:5 tons per square foot, from which it appears that the safe working loads may be taken as at least 5 and 9 tons respectively. 6. Conclusion in regard to transverse strength of brickwork.—It will be observed that the lime mortar beams were tested after nearly a year, but that they all failed by horizontal shearing of the mortar, the bricks remaining uninjured, so that the modulus of rupture calculated in the ordinary way has not the usual mean- ing. Comparing the intensities of horizontal shearing stress developed in testing the beams with the average results obtained by testing the shearing resistance (Figs. 10 and 11), and with the results of testing briquettes of the mortar, in which small square discs of the brick had been inserted when moulding the briquettes, thereby developing the direct adhesive strength of the mortar to the brick, it is difficult to account for the failure of the mortar in the beams at the low stresses indicated. The shearing strengths of the two mortars, as in Figs. 5 and 6 were 21:5 and 20°7 ibs. per square inch respectively, and the adhesive strengths 13:2 and 9°8 ibs. per square inch respectively. The deeper beams gave LXXII. W. H. WARREN AND S. H. BARRACLOUGH. the better results, but even after twelve months the lime mortar was weaker than the bricks. In testing the beams built in cement mortar after about six months hardening in air, the greater strength of the mortar enabled them to resist the horizontal shearing stresses much better, and with the stronger of the two cement mortars the bricks were the weaker, whereas the weaker mortar appeared to be just about as strong as the bricks. This is seen by the failure by rupture of the bricks and shearing in tests Nos. 15 and 16, as well as the direct tests for shearing and adhesion, giving about the same results as the shearing stress developed in the beams. The two smaller beams built in cement mortar and tested after about twelve months, gave results showing the mortar to be stronger than the bricks. The modulus of rupture calculated from the results obtained in testing the cement mortar beams has the ordinary meaning, since in all cases failure occurred by rupture of the bricks. The deflections observed with the various loads applied in the cement mortar beams are plotted in Fig. 7, and the curves are more or less parallel up to a total load of two tons, but the coefficient of elasticity is irregular. It is necessary to know the transverse strength of brickwork in order to determine the load which will be brought to bear upon a beam spanning an opening and carrying a brick wall. The brickwork as it is gradually built over the girder increases in weight directly as the height, but its resistance as a beam increases as the square of the height. The height at which it will just support itself depends upon its transverse strength, thus':— Let / denote the span of an opening. 5,5 A the height of brickwork which is self-supporting. », ¢ the thickness of the brick wall. ,, w the weight of a cubic foot of brickwork. ,, / the.modulus of rupture in pounds per square inch. The bending moment occurs near the points of support of the beam, * See Baker’s Masonry Construction, and Engineering, Vol. xIv. COMPRESSIVE AND TRANSVERSE STRENGTHS OF BRICKWORK. LXXIII, and is :— Wi 12 but W the total weight of the brickwork over the girder is :— whil OL OBOE ee ise 88S The moment of resistance of the brick beam is:—} th? (144 f) . wht? _ th? (144 f) gel 6 wl? te 288f It is sometimes assumed, for convenience, that w equals 144 ibs. per cubic foot (although more frequently about 125) as then :— [2 ae 2.€., the height equals the square of the span divided by twice the modulus of rupture. If the wall, for example, is built over an opening 20 feet wide and the modulus of rupture is 10 tbs. per square inch, (see Table X.) then in order that it should be self-supporting we have:— 20 x 20 20 A height greater than this would be more than self-supporting, h= = 20 feet and it is seen the height diminishes as the modulus of rupture decreases. For any height less than that at which the brickwork becomes self-supporting the wall would require to be supported and would bring pressure upon the beam. When the bricks are first laid the transverse strength will be much smaller, and the load upon the beam correspondingly greater, but as time goes on the strength will gradually increase, and the actual load upon the beam becomes gradually less and less, and very frequently dis- appears altogether. Since the net resistance of the wall increases simply as the height, let h’ equal the height which would produce the maximnm load upon the beam, then :— LXXIV. W. H. WARREN AND & H. BARRACLOUGH. 4 = the portion of the entire weight of the wall which is self-supporting, and :— 1 - Z = the portion which roumines support. The total height to be supported is:— (1-5) This is a maximum when /’ = ae or the expression The maximum load in the beam equals the weight of a quarter of the height of a self-supporting wall. : {2 pa 1 ee eae ewe ce gir A ay This gives the height of the wall producing the maximum load on the girder. Referring to the example it appears that since 20 feet is the height of a wall which would support itself, assuming that the value of the modulus of rupture is 10 tbs. per square inch; the height of the wall producing the maximum load upon the beam is l'0 feet: It is clear that the practice of assuming that the whole height. of brickwork above the girder over an opening is actually carried by the girder is incorrect; moreover the girder should be designed to carry whatever load is actually brought upon it depending on. the transverse strength of the brickwork, not asa beam supported at each end and loaded uniformly along its length, but as a beam fixed at the ends, having its maximum bending moment at the points of support. COMPRESSIVE AND TRANSVERSE STRENGTHS OF BRICKWORK. LXXV. Table I.—BRICK COLUMN No. 4C. Built in mortar, 1 part Hemmor Cement to 4 parts of Nepean River sand, with 15% water. Length of column = 56 inches. Length over which the compressions were observed = 534 inches. Cross section = 9 inches by 9 inches = 81 square inches. Age when tested, 4 months. wotal- |. Readings of Dial Extensometers in ond ta Millimeters. R k emarks. Tons. Front. Back. Mean. | Difference 2 0°22 0°20 0°21 0 03 4 0°23 0°25 0°24 | 0:03 6 | 0°24 0°29 0°27 0:02 8 0:26 0°32 0°29 0:03 10 0°28 0°35 0°32 0°04 | compression per ton up to 12 0°33 0°38 0°36 10 tons 0:0145 mm. 0:03 14 0°36 0°42 0°39 0°05 | 16 | 0-42 0:45 0°44 0:03 18 0°45 0°49 0°47 0:02 20 0°47 0-51 0°49 compression per ton up to 0°95 20 tons 00162 mm. 22 0°52 0°55 0°54 0°04, 24 0°57 0°59 0°58 | 0-08 26 0°61 0°61 0°61 0:04. 28 0°65 0°64: 0°65 0°04 30 0°70 0°68 0°69 0°06 32 0°77 0°72 0°75 0°04 34. 0°82 0°75 0-79 | 0-04. 36 | 0°87 0°79 0°83 slight crack across one 0°11 corner of fifth course 38 1:03 0°84 0°94 from top. 0:07 40 | 1:14 0°88 101 compression per ton up to | 0:04. 40 tons 0°0209 mm. fr 4m | 118 | O91 |- 1:05 } 0°05 LXXVI. W. H. WARREN AND S. H. BARRACLOUGH. Table I. (continued) BRICK COLUMN No 4 C. Readings of Dial Extensometers in Total Millimeters. q Load in |. eee eee Remarks. . Tons. noc | Back. | Mean. |Ditference 44 | 1:25 095 | 1:10 0:05 46 1°31 0:99 115 0:04 48 1°36 1:02 1:19 0:05 50 1°41 1:07 1°24 0°07 52 1°48 1:13 1°31 0:05 54 1°54 1:17 1°36 0:08 56 1°65 1:22 1°44 0:06 58 1°74 1:26 1°50 0:04. 60 177, 1:30 1:54 0°09 62 1:90 1°35 1-63 0:04. 64. 1:94 1°40 1°67 0°03 66 1:96 1°43 1:70 0°05 68 2°02 1°47 1°75 0:06 70 2°11 1°50 181 0:06 72 2°18 1°55 1:87 0:04: 74, 2°23 1°59 1°91 0:08 76 2°33 1°64 1:99 0:06 78 2°42 1°68 2°05 0:06 80 2°48 1°74 2°11 0:05 82 2°53 1°78 2°16 0°05 84. 2°60 1°82 2°21 O11 86 2°75 1°88 2°32 0:06 88 2°82 1°94 2238 column cracked. 0:09 90 2°91 2°02 2°47 00°6 92 2°96 2°10 2°53 Dials removed. Broke at 100 tons after carry- ing weight for 25 min. Nearly every brick fractured. oy Load in Tons. 37 50 70 9°0 11°0 13°0 15°0 17-0 19:0 21°0 23°0 25°0 27°0 29°0 31°0 33'0 35°0 37°0 39°0 41°0 43°0 45°0 47-0 49°0 Front. ‘02 mm. Readings of Mirrors with 10°5 10°68 10°84 11°04 11°22 11°34 11°51 val 11°82 11°98 12°13 | 12°29 12-45 | 12°61 | 12°79 12°94 | 13°11 | 13°29 13°43 13°62 13°81 13°92 14°22 14°43 distance rods. Back. ‘02 mm. Mean 0 | 105 0°08 | 10°78 0°22 | 11:06 0°37 | 11°41 0°52 | 11°74 0°70 | 12:04 0°89 | 12°40 1:01 | 12°70 1:09 | 12°91 1:20 | 13°18 1°33 | 13°46 1°49 | 13°78 1°64 | 14°09 1°82 | 14°43 2°02 | 14°81 2°25 | 15°19 2°48 | 15°59 2°82 | 16°11 3°01 | 16°44 3°27 | 16°89 3°53 | 17°34 17°74 18°33 3°82 4°11 4°40 | 18°83 ‘01 mm. Table IT. COMPRESSION TEST, BRICK PIER No. 10. Mortar = 1 cement + 2 sand + 15% water. Dimensions = 13°25 inches by 9 inches by 9 inches. Length over which compressions were measured. = 200 mm. Age when tested =358 days. Readings of Mirrors without distance rods, Diff. A. 01 mm. 0°28 0:28 0°35 0°33 0°30 0-36 0:30 0:21 0°27 0:28 0°32 0°31 0°34 0:38 0:38 0:40 0°52 0°33 0:45 0°45 0:40 0°59 0°50 Front. 0°50 0°51] O51 0°51 0°55 0°58 0°58 0°58 0°58 0°58 0°58 0°58 0°58 0°58 0 58 0°59 0°58 0°58 0°60 0°59 0°59 0°60 0°60 0°60 °02 mm. Back. ‘02 mm, Mean. ‘01 mm. 13°0 | 13°50 12°99 12°99 12°98 12°95 | 13°50 12°92 12°92 12°90 12°90 12°89 12°89 12°88 12°88 12°87 12°84: 12°82 12°81 12°81 12°80 12°80 12°79 12°78 | 13°38 12°78 12°77 | 13:37 Diff. B.||, ‘01 mm. +0:01 Remarks Average comp. per ton 0 00139 mm. = Coefficient of elasticity = 1772 tons per sq. inch Table II.—COMPRESSION TEST, BRICK PIER No. 10—Test Repeated. Readings of Mirrors with Readings of Mirrors without Load distance rods. distance rods, Compni;| in ; (A.—B.) Pee Tons. | Front.| Back. | Mean | Diff. A.|| Front.| Back. | Mean. | Diff. B.|| Pe” a ; ge: ‘02 mm.|"02 mm.,|'01 =a mm. 0 mm.|‘02 mm.|:01 mm.|:01 mm;)/ 0 2m \ 16 | 0:00 | 0:00 | 0:00 0:00 | 0:00 | 0:00 Test repeated, 0:36 0-00 || 0°106 |. | 4:0 | 0°26 | 0°10 | 0°36 0:02 | 0:03 ; 0:00 . ie | 0:55 +0°11]| O-11 8:0 | 0°62 | 0:29 | 0-91 O04 | 0°07 7) G: _ | Average comp, 0°72 +0 06 || 0°17 per ton = 12:0 | O-OL | 0°62 | 1°63 0:08 | 0°09 | 0:17 0:001928 mam| | 0°81 0:00]| 0-202 ai 16°0 | 1:44 | 1:00 | 2-44 0:07 | 0-10) "Onze | | | 0°77 || - 0-01 || 0-195 a 20:00 t-S4n IES7aleaet 0:06 | 0-10 | 0:16 Coefficient of | | 0.81 +0°02 || 0°20 Elasticity 24-0 | 2:21 | 1°81 | 4:02 0:07 | 0-11 | 0:18 = 1288 tons| 0:83 +9°02 || 0°202| persq inch.| — 28:0 | 2°60 | 2°25 | 4°85 0:08 | 0:12 | 0°20 ll } | 0°82 +003 || 0°212 32:0 | 2°98 | 2°74 | 567 0:08 | 0°15 | 0°23. ne | 0-88 +0°02|| 0°215 36:0 | 3°33 | 3°22 | 6:55 0°08 | O°17 | 0°25 | : | 0°92 | +002 || 0°225 40:0 | 3°68 | 3°79 | 7°47 0:09 | 018 | 0:27 1:00 +0:01 || 0°247 44°0 | 4°11 | 4°36 | 8°47 | 0°09 | 0:19 | 0:28 0°95 - 0°01 || 0°24 48:0 | 451 | 491 | 9°42 | 0°08 | 0°19 | 0:27 COMPRESSION TEST, BRICK PIER No. 10 (Retested). 4 0:00 | 0:00 | 0:00 | 0°00} 0:00} 0:00 0-16 | —0:04:|| 0-20 j 5 0:09 | 0:07 | 0°16 — 0:02 | — 0:02 | - 0:04 . Average comp | 0°89 |, -0:01 || 0-18 per ton = \ 10:0 | O61 | 0-44 | 1°05 '- 0°02 | — 0:08 | — 0°05 0°00228 mm. | 1-02 | ~0-01 || 0:20 . 15:0 | 1:17 | 0°90 | 2:07 ,— 0°02 | - 0:04 - 0:06 ti 1:06 | : ~ 0:04 | 0°22 | 20:0 | 1°64 | 1:49) 3:13 i; — 0:02 | — 0-08 | - 0°10 Coefficient of | 1:05 - 0:00) 0°21 ee IM 25:0 | 2°18 | 2:00 | 418 - 0 02; - 0°08 | - 0°10 = 1105 tons} 1:07 -001]| 0:21 per sq. inch. | 30:0 | 2°65 | 2°60 | 5:25 — 0:02 |—0:09}-0°11 - 1:09 | - 0°00] 0:218 | 35:0 | 3:05 | 3°29 | 6°34 - 0:00|-011|-0°11 | ‘| 115 | - 0°01 || 0°22 it 40:0 | 3°61 | 3°88 | 7:49 - 0°01) -0°11)| - 0°12 : 1-21 -0-01] 0-24 | 45-0 | 4:11 | 4°59 | 8-70 - 002) - 013} - 0°18 fl 1:18 ~ 0:03 || 0-242 | 500 | 4°60 | 5°28 | 9°88 — 0:02 | — 0°14! - 0-16 | 1:24 — 0°02 |) 0:252 ie 55°0 | 5:02 | 6°10 | 11°12 +0'01}-0:19| -0°18 | 1°31 -0°01 || 0°26 q 60:0 | 5°56 | 8°87 | 12°43 _ || +001) -0:18)-0-17 a oa j Load in Tons. aon oa F_» OS 10 12 Table II.—COMPRESSION TEST, BRICK PIER No. 10 (Retested). ‘02 mm. Age when tested = 520 davs. Readers of Mirrors with distance rods. Readings of Mirrors without Front. Mean Back. ‘OL mm. ‘02 mm, Diff. A. ‘01 mm. 0 | 6901 90 7:09 T22 7°39 7°69 7°80 7°96 8-13 8-41 861 8°82 9°04 9°22 9°44 9°67 9-80 10:07 10°29 10°49 10°69 | 10°92 11:14 11°32 11°59 11°83 12°03 12°31 12°55 12°79 13:02 9°60 10°71 11-09 11°38 11°60 11°82 12:09 12°35 12°58 12°81 13°08 13°31 13°58 13°80 1405 14°36 1458 14°80 15 09 15°33 15°58 15°82 16°11 16°35 16 62 16:93 17°22 trie 17°80 | 18 10 16°50 17 80 18:31 18°77 19:20 19°62 20-05 20°48 20:99 21:42 21-90 29°35 29°80 23-24 23°72 24-16 24°65 25-09 25-58 26 02 26°50 26-96 27 43 27 94 28 45 28-96 29:53 30-05 30°59 3112 1°30 051 0°46 0°43 0°42 0°43 0°43 0-51 0°43 0°48 0°45 0°45 0°44 0°48 0°44: 0-49 0-44 | 0-49 | O 44 0 48 0:46 | 0:47 0°51 0°51 3ol 0°57 || 0°52 | 0°54 0°53 distance rods, | Front. | Back. | Mean. | Diff. B. ‘02 mm.|'02 mm.,/|'01 mm./'01 mm. 8:00 4-60 | 12:60) +008 7°86 | 478 | 12:68 - 0°05 786 | 477 | 12°68 +0°05 7°86 | 478 | 12°68 - 0°04 7°89 | 475 | 12:64 - 0°03 189) (PAvk2 12-6 0:00 790 | 4°71 | 12°@1 -0:01 7:90 | 4°70 | 12°60 -0:01 7°89 | 4°70 | 12°59 -001 7°88 | 4°70 | 12°58 0:00 7:88 | 470 | 12°58 +001 7°89 | 4°70 | 12-59 | — 0:03 7°87 | 469 | 12°56 -001 7:87 4°68 | 12°55 -0°01 7°86 | 468 | 12:54) -—001 7:88 | 465 | 12°53 — 0:02 7:86 | 465 | 12°51 —0:01 86 | 4°64 | 12°50 0 00 786 | 464 | 12°50 -00l 787 | 462 | 12°49 +001 783 | 462 | 12°50 — 0:02 TBE 4°61 | 12°48 0:00 7°88 | 460 | 12°48 0:00 7°88 | 4°60 | 12°48 0:00 789 | 459 | 12°48 0:00 790 | 4°58 | 12°48 -001 7°89 ‘08 | 12°47 -— 0°02 7°89 | 4°56 | 12°45 - 0°01 789 | 455 | 12°44 0:00 7:90 | 4°54 2. _||(A.—B.) | Compn. per ton ‘Ol mm. 0°35 | 0°28 0°20 0°24. 0:23 0:22 0°22 0:25 0°22 0°24 0°22 0°24, 0:22 O24 0°22 0:25 0°22 0:24 0 22 0:23 0°24. 0:23 0:26 0:25 0°26 0:29 0°27 0°27 0°27 Remarks | | | per ton Average comp. 0-00241 mm. | Coefficient of Elasticity = 1023 tons per sq. inch. Table III. _ COMPRESSION TEST CEMENT MORTAR PIER, No. Mortar = 1 cement + 2 sand + 10% water. Dimensions = 12 inches by 6:inches by 6 inches. Length over which compressions ware measured = Age when tested = 109 days in water. Readings of Meneore oeth 200 mm. $< ———$—— ee menigaes of Mirrors without Load distance rods. distance rods, in LS ete — = -—|(A—B)| - Remarks Tons. | Front.| Back. | Mean | Diff. A.|| Front. | Back. + Mean. | Diff. B.|| Pet ton 02 mm.|‘02 mm,|‘0l mm.|‘01 mm. |. 02 srk mm,|-01 mm,|‘01 mm. || 0! mm. 0 4°00} 3°50) 7:50 | 2°50 | 4°00 | 6°50 1°16 +0°03 |} 0°565 2 4°58 | 4°13) 866 2°49 | 4:04 | 6°53 Average comp. 0°56 -0°01|; 0°57 | per ton = 3 4°80 | 442) 9°22 2°48 | 4°04 | 6°52 0:0067 mm. | 0°53 -—0°01 || 05 4 5:22 | 463} 9°85 2°44 | 4°07 | 6°51 Coefficient of 061 +0°01|; 0°60 | Elasticity | 5 | 5-65| 4°81 | 10-46 2:42 | 410 | 6°52 = 832 tons | — 0-62 —0°02|| 0°64 | per sq. inch. 6 6:08 | 5:00 | 11:08 2:46 | 4°10 | 6°50 0°79 +001 || 0°73 g 6:40 | 5°47 | 11:87 2°40 | 4:11 | 6°51 0°59 0:00 || 0°59 8 6°81 | 5°65 | 12°46 2:40 | 4:11 | 6°51 0°71 -0°01 |} 0°72 9 7°28 | 5:89 | 13:17 2:39 | 4°11 | 6°50 0-80 +0-01}| 0°79 10 (Ries | Tori |) ees 2°40 | 4°11 | 6°51 1°20 - | +001 |) 0°595 12 8°25 | 6°92 | 15°17 2°40 | 4:12 | 6°52 151 0:00 || 0°755 14 9:08 |} 7°60 | 16°68 2°40 | 4°12 | 6°52 1°63 -—0'01 ||, 0°82 16 0°95 | 836 | 18°31 2°39 | 412 | 6°51 1:49 +006 || 0°715 18 | 11°45} 9°35 | 20°80 2°38 | 4:19 | 6°57 1:76 - 0°08 || 0°92 20 | 12°45 | 10°31 | 22°76 2°31 | 4°18 | 6°49 20 | 12°70 | 10°50 | 23°20 After standing 2°31 a few min- | 15 | 11°49} 9:40 | 20°89 2°39 | 4°16 | 6°55 utes 2°88 +001)| 0°58 10 | 10:15; 7°86 | 18:01 2°40 | 4°16 | 6°56 3°47 - 0:02]; 0°69 5 8:22 | 6°32 | 14°54 2°40 | 414 | 6°54 4°72 — 0°04 || 0°95 0 5°20 | 452] 9°72 | 2:40 | 4°10 | 6°50 (RETE|STED.) 0 4°50} 5°00} 9:50 4:00 | 2°50 | 6°50 j 1:33 —0°01]} 0°67 2 5°13 | 5°70 | 10°83 3°99 | 2°50 | 6°49 Average comp. — 1°41 -0°01|) 0°70 | per ton =| 4, 5°67 | 6°57 | 12°24 397 | 2°51 | 6°48 0:0072 mm. 1°56 +0:08 || 0°77 6 6:10 | 7°70 | 13°80 4°00 | 2°51 | 6°51 1-45 +0-01|| 0°72 E 8 6°65 | 8°60 | 15°25 4-02 | 2°50 | 6°52 Coefficient of | 1:43 | —0°01|} 0°72 | Elasticity | 10 7°36 | 9°32 | 16°68 4°01 | 2°50 | 6°51 = 768 tons | 1:36 +0°01|| 069 | persq. inch. 12 8°04 | 10-00 | 18-04 4°02 | 2:50 | 6°52 ; 1:41 0:00|| 0°71 14 8°74 | 10°71 | 19°45 4°02 | 2°50 | 6°52 1°42 +001} 0°71 16 9°43 | 11°44 | 20°87 4°03 | 2°50 | 6°53 1:57 0:00 || 0°79 18 | 10°19 | 12°25 | 22°44 : 4:03 | 2°50 | 6°53 1°54 -—0°02|} 078 20 | 10:99 | 12°99 404! 2°47 COMPRESSIVE AND TRANSVERSE STRENGTHS OF BRICKWORK, LXXXI. | "SU04 A41911]U9009 “U1 F ‘104CAL %GI + pues F + JUewWId a ae na i a a 6— Dec, 19, 1900, 91Z 98po pouteaqs ysoum ye ooT0Z Suiysnay a2 OL c T ‘aunjoo ‘ur g Aq ‘ule | “vz Teyem %GT + :; pues F + JUoMIeD [ 1v410m1 *SU0} GQ 4SBOT ‘sT0} Aq1011}09000 ‘ULF elt mate _ EG zs G6V —008"Fr| P8E V oP erect 6 | &-8T VT | SL -1OUL OY} SUOTR Sulreays | | [ejuozra0y Lq porrey suveg GOL \xonesgepon) (Le gOl'y | 4P8 | S |G-HZI| TS4]} 08] T-0c| FT, 28/6 \ SE “TOYVM ‘Opis WOISUe4 WO SZorAq jo Sep | | eanjdna Aq pores suvag 682 = |aoroepep ou 988 O9L‘ES | F8E j "Ss "|e Ealeese G8 |, Ft | 20 "OT “ON JO | : OPIS UOISUs} OY} UO UayoIq = | egem syoIIq ey, ‘squrol 0-Gg | LEPLST) FP 0189 | FLT | F sel 628 | 0g | 46 PL | G-L8| OT 5 IVJLOUL OY} SUOCTR SULIVOYS : | S| psyuoztaoy Ly parrey survog 0.g¢ G82‘6T | FOL OLF0S | OST v LéT | 94 | 08 0Z PL L8 | ST (e) : fz 0-8S 000‘O8T| SOP LSeTL| LLT G SéT 88€ | OF | G6 VL | S6-L8 | VI Ss ‘apIs MOIsue4 UO syoIAq i jo orngdna Aq popes suvog 0-26 SOT'SS | 9LZ Z9P'SE | OST G 6ZT |&-F94 | OF | S4-61| FL); 28} ST sel ‘AVLAO]L INGWALS) | Z 8.1 # yet | 2ee | ose | + 121 | ee|oe| 6 | #1} S498) ar Zi y . | | = 9.6 L-LT org | oss | 2 921 | 898 | 08 OL | $281 | G1-98 | IT Zi | | fa ‘squtol 1e3 g.9 : ere | Best | ese | b |42er| 929) 08] SOIT #1 | 18 | OT 2 =< = z - ‘ur ‘bs tod ‘sq'y |ur‘bs tad “sq urtbs rad ‘sq'T a ae quaoxed cp dno Jad| “1840, | ‘ynded | ‘yapreag “48ue'T ‘quiof pourerys i : a 3» Jus. | — : . . 2 patidd sfep setpouy weg "SYAIVULOIY qsout oy} Stote | “AZr1oT4svTa ‘anqydna TGC BET. UL paqsey | 10 SULT ‘Sspunog “SoyOuUy yo sseijs SUTIvaYsS | Jo JUaTDyJO00 JO SNMpOIL | -yearq peqo7 [WatLA SV) qued otto uedg | ‘ON [epuozt1oy Jo joavurrxoaddy Yor [VIOL \23 purs JO UIBI JO JTLSIOM ‘mIvag JO STOISTOMIG AJISMIAVUT "XV 14.10dor1g! H ‘AVLYOW TWIT SWVAd MOTYA AO SLSAL ASHAASNVGL—X el LXXXVI. COMPRESSIVE AND TRANSVERSE STRENGTHS OF BRICKWORK, LXXXVII. Table XI.—TRANSVERSE TESTS OF BRICK BEAMS BUILT IN CEMENT MORTAR. Beam No. 18. Bram No. 14. Load applied Deflection in Load applied Deflection in in centre inches per in centre inches per pounds. 2240 Ibs. pounds. 1120 Ibs, 2,550 Bahn 0:0060 0 0085 4,790 4,637 0:0065 0°00385 7,030 5,707 0:0070 0:0055 9,270 6,877 0:0060 0:0050 11,510 1,997 0:0970 0°0030 13,750 9,117 0:0030 -| 0:0020 15,990 10,237 0:0025 0:0050 18,230 leo 0°0035 ee a 20,470 0:0035 Bram | No. 16. 22,710 0:00380 1,270 24,950 0:0040 0:0040 2,390 27,196 0°0040 0:0020 3,510 29,430 0:0065 0:0050 4,630 31,670 00035 0:0025 4,780 33,462 0:0025 | —__—_ — 6,870 Bram | No. 15. 2,550 In computing the Lee 0:0070 coefficients of elasticity ; 0-0075 as shown in the pre- 7,030 ceding table, the deflec- 0:0065 tions for the smaller 9,270 loads only were used. 0:0050 11,510 The results are of course 0-0049 only roughly approxi- 13,750 mate, 0:0040 15,990 0:00385 18,2380 20,470 Table XII.—TRANSVERSE TESTS OF CEMENT AND LIME MORTARS. Cement Mortar. | No. Composition of Mortar. gocher si ae “ea of 6 5 Ree ests. % Pe ee Ne he we pe lg ee Ae el ae A |1 cement + 2 Nepean River sand| 2x2 10 263 4 + 15% water B |1 cement + 4 sand + 15% water | 22 10 153 4. Lime Mor|Tar. C |1 stone lime + 2 Nepean River! 2% 2 10 18°4 4, sand + 15% water D |1lime+ 4sand + 15% water 2x2 10 12-7 4 TRANSVERSE STRENGTH OF BRICKS. Bricks 43 inches wide, 3 inches deep, 74 inches centres. Mean brea load 3,462 lbs. Modulus of rupture, 962 lbs. per square inch. Table XIII.—COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CEMENT AND LIME MORTARS USED IN PIERS. CemMENT MorRtTAR. Composition of Mortar. A sand + 15 per cent. water ditto ditto ditto ditto 1 cement + 4 Nepean River sand + 15 percent. water ditto ditto ditto ditto B Lime 1 stone lime + 2 Nepean River sand + 15 per cent. water ditto ditto ditto ditto ditto D | 1 stone lime + 4 Nepean River sand + 15 per cent. water ditto ditto ditto ditto ditto C 1 cement + 2 Nepean River Size in inches. 6x6x9 6x6x6 66x 4 6X6x2 6x6x 1 6X6x%o 6x6x9 6x66 6x64 6x6x2 6x6x1 6x6x>s Mortar. 6x6x12 6*6*9 6*6*6 6X64 . 6x6x2 6x6x1 6x6*x4 6*6*12 6x6x9 6*6*6 6x6 4 6x62 6x6*1 6x6x4 * Without breaking. + Cracked on edges. Area ex- to crush- ing. sq. in. 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 posed | Final crush-/Compressive g ing load lbs, strength a an me : Ibs. per sq. in = E 63,516| 1,764 4, 84,116] 2,336 4 92,400} 2,566 4. *100,000 jover 2777| 4 +224,000| 6,222 4 £224,000 jover 6222; 4 35,866| | 996 4, 57,816| 1,606 4 64,766| 1,799 A 95,066| 2,630 4 181,776| 5,049 4 206,304 5,730 4 mean, 2 tests 1,075 28 A 1,445 4.0 4 1,860 61 4 2,740 76 4 7,725 214 4 8,712 242 4 20,250 562 4, 305 8°4 4 510 14 4 1,642 47 4 2,137 59 4 7,175 199 4 8,325 231 4 16,408 455 4 36 {¢ Slight cracks on edge. COMPRESSIVE AND TRANSVERSE STRENGTHS OF BRICKWORK. LXXXIX. Table XIV.—TENSILE TESTS OF CEMENT AND LIME MORTARS USED IN PIERS. CrmMENT MorRrTAr. Load in Tensile No. Composition of Mortar. pean ORS ae an ee a an ea ; A |1 cement + 2 Nepean River] 1°5 x 1°55] 2:25 | 722 320 4, sand + 15% water | B |1 cement + 4sand + 15% |1°5*1°5| 2°25 | 409 181 4, water Linz] Mortar C | 1stone lime + 2 Nepean |15*1°5| 2:25 84 37°4 4, River sand + 15% water ; D | 1llime +4 sand + 15% water| 1°5* 1°5| 2°25 46 20°4 4, Table XV.-—SUMMARY OF SHEARING TESTS OF MORTAR AND BRICKS USED IN THE TESTS OF BRICKS, PIERS, AND BEAMS. Fig. 10. ) Fig. 11. Average shearing Description of Materials. strength on planes aa | Age in days. Lbs. per square inch. 1 Hemmoor cement 2 Nepean River sand _... 192°2 122 1 ditto z ditto tee 58°75 122 1 Stone hme 2 ditto on 21°46 129 if ditto 4, ditto Ae 20°7 129 Table XVI.—ADHESION TESTS OF BRIQUETTES WITH DISCS OF BRICK IN THE CENTRE. Mean of 2 highest. | Age in Description of Materials. Lbs. per square inch| days. 1 Cement 2 Nepean River sand 15 per cent. water 49°3 122 1 ditto 4 ditto ditto 40 4 122 1 Stone lime 2 ditto ditto 18:2 | 122 1 ditto 4 ditto ditto 9°8 122 XC. W. H. WARREN AND S. H. BARRACLOUGH. Table XVII—SUMMARY OF RESULTS OBTAINED IN 1878 OF SHEARING TESTS WITH PRESSED BRICKS IN CEMENT MORTAR (Castle Brand Cement). | Average shearing Average shearing | strength in lbs. per | strength in lbs, per Description of Materials. sq. inch after 7 days on |sq. inch after 28 days on| planes a.a. (figs. 10, 11)| planes a.a. (figs. 10, 11) Neat cement A ae Be he 168 213 Crushed sandstone and cement, 1 to 1 117 146 ditto 2 tol| 53 73 ditto 3 tol 26 48 ditto 4 tol 16 45 Bluestone dust and cement ser Seow 79 136 ditto wee GOUL 47 84 ditto 205 FORE 34 45 ditto 4 tol 23 41 Nepean River sand and cement, 1 to 1 102 105 ditto 2 to 1 38 45 ditto 3 tol 20° 24 ditto 4 to 1 9 14 (xxvii) A PAGE Aborigines of Port Stephens, N.S. Wales... n. LOS) KxIx. of the South-east Coast of N.S. Wales . 262 Abstract of Proceedings lll. INDEX. : PAGE Biolysis of sewage 29 “Black Gum 7. WOT: Boogaldi meteorite 81, xlvi. Books purchased in 1900 ~, Ix Bolivia, copper nuggets 258 Botany Sewage Farm ... 32 Address to Enginesring Section. Alterations to Rules vi., vii., xlili. Amy] ester ; 72, XV. Anniversary Address ivan: Annual Dinner .., XXX. Aromadendral se 294 Aromadendrol .. 295 Aromadendric acid . 295 Aromatic aldehyde in Bucalyp- tus oils ae . 286 Artificial light ... XEKV- Auditors, Honorary Bees clitite Australian aborigines, marriage and descent... SOS Sex xii, Engineering, a century of Ixv. Australia’s first engineer and surveyor... “fas ana st foundry XXIII. — — naval architecture —_——_—— and marine engineering... XL. —— — steam engine EXX, B Bacteria coli communis ... ae enteritides sporogenes 25 —— fluoresvens liquefaciens ... 25 —— mesentericus Be eS) —— mycoides 25 subtilis en 2p Baker, R. T., F.u.s., Note ona new meteorite from New South Wales rhe 81 — Note on an obsidian ‘ Bomb’ from N.S. Wales 118, xxx. Barraclough, S. H., B.E., M.M.Ez., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., and Warren, Professor W. H., M. Inst. C.E., M. Am, Soc. C.E.. Experimental investigation on the strength of brickwork when subjected to compressive and trans- verse stresses lxii., LXIII. Bequest, form of (viii.) Brick columns in cement mortar TARE, in lime mortar D-@.< Brickwork, strength of wxtit., lxii. Building and Investment Fund iv. Burra Burra copper nuggets ... 258 Burge, C. O., M. Inst.C.£., Notes on Rack Railways 84, xxv., lxil. Busby’s Bore x C Campaspe River .. 2538: Clarke Memorial Rand ee aj ouNg —— Medal awards XXiv. Compression tests of brickwork Lx11I Concrete dam moulding boards Lv. Contents... (v.) Conversazione XXIx. Copper nuggets ... . 255. Corrigenda te .. (iii. ) Crooks, Sir Wallen , F.R. 's., elected honorary member ‘xliii. Crystalline structure of nuggets 255, 259, XXxv. Cubic parabola, tables to facili- tate the location of 281, xlv. Culex ciliaris, Linn. ae 3 Current papers No. 5 ... XXXVIl. Curved concrete walls for stor- age reservoirs XIX, Led. D Darley, C. W., M. Inst. C.E., Curved concrete walls for storage reservoirs XLIx., lxii,. Notes on damage caused by lightning to Seal Rocks lighthouse on 10th July 1900)... . XXVill., 98 Darling River 5 241 Darwinia fascicularis 142, 144, 146, xxxix. Demonstrations Vitis MEK LT (XXvViii. ) PAGE Destruction of City refuse XLVII. Dinner, annual ... XXix. Donations x., xvii., Xxli., xxxi., xlix. aS RON REX Vl, Xe Droughts at Lake George BE Engineering, Australian, a cen- tury of ». IXV, — Section 4, Te Wiley, LW Enright, W. J., B.a. Syd., The Language, Weapons and Manufactures of the Abori- gines of Port Stephens, New South Wales 108, xxix. Eudesmia Pris Eudesmic acid ne FD eps Hucalyptus aggregata ...73, 147, xv. albens 286, 287, 289, 291, xlviii. — amygdalina .. ws. L8G —— botryoides 73, Xvi. —coriacea . 137 — eneorifolia 287, 288, 289, 291, xlviii. — dives 187, 140, 142, 286, xxxiv. — eugenoides . 290 globulus 74, 295 —— hemastoma... nx ... 189 hemiphloia 286, 287, 289, 290, xlviil. macarthuri 148, 144, 145, xxxix. macrorhyncha TOES. — oils 72,1386, 142, 286, XV., XXX1V., XXXI1X. — ovalifolia mnzeo — patentinervis 74, 148, 290, xvi. —— piperita 136, XXIV. — radiata 136, 137, 286 —_ resinifera aa 74 — rostrata igs 7 Bt Se, —- saligna Tos As) =vi. — Sieberiana ... wise Woollsiana 286, 288, 291, xlviil. Everitt, Miss M. M.and Mathews, R. H., u.s., The organisation, languageand initiation cere- monies of the aborigines of the South-east coast of New South Wales 262, xlv. Exchanges ; 5 Exhibits xvii., xix., xxviii., <1, Ixu. Federation affecting water rights 233, xliii. Filaria Bancrofti, Cobb... eS Filaria nocturna, Manson sanguinis hominis, Lewis... 3 Financial position 5, iii. Flood at Lake George ... bao SeRes G General account.. Geranyl acetate in Eucalyptus ili. Oller . 142, xxxix. Gold dredging ae ee — nuggets .. 259, XXXV. Goulburn River... . 251 Gundungurra grammar . 265 Gwydir River . 242 isl Hamlet, W. M., F.c.S., F.1.¢., Anniversary Address 1 vt, Honorary Members, election of xliii. I Initiation ceremonies of the aborigines ... ‘ 262, xlv. Intercolonial water rights as affected by Federation 233, xliil. kK Klondyke Gold Nuggets 261, xxxv. Knibbs, G. H., F.R.a.s., On the relation, in determining the volumes of solids, whose parallel transverse sections are ¢ functions of their position on the axis, between the number, position, and coefficients of the sections, and the (positive) indices of the functions 36, xili. —-~ The Sun’s motion in space, Part I. History and Biblio- graphy 148, xxxvlil. ‘Kud'sha’ initiation ceremonies 276 Lh Lake George, past droughts and recent flood at BW 6.6. Language, aborigines of Port Stephens, N.S. Wales 103, xxix. —— of the aborigines of the South-east coast of New South Wales 262, xlv. Lectures, science . XXV., XX1X. Library ... Lightning damage to Seal Rocks lighthouse . 98, xxviii. (xxix. ) PAGE Liversidge, Professor, M.A.,LL.D., F.R S., Boogaldi meteorite xlvi. — On the crystalline struc- ture of some silver and cop- per nuggets .. . 255 — On the crystalline struc- ture of some gold nuggets from Victoria, New Zealand and Klondyke 46259, XXxXv. Loddon River ) 253 M Macquarie River . 240 Mallee Box” ... . 288 Manufactures, aboriginal 103, xxix. Marriaze among Australian aborigines ... SAO Gexiia. Mathews, R. H., u.s., Marriage and descent among the Aus- tralian aborigines 120, xxxiil. — and Everitt, Miss M. M., The organisation, language and initiation ceremonies of the aborigines of the south east coast of New South Wales 262, xlv. McIntyre River... Me ... 243 McKinney, H. G., M. Inst. C.E., Intercolonial Water Rights as affected by Federation 233, xliii. Mechanical Engineering in New South Wales EV. Medal Clarke, awards ... XXIV. —— Society’s awards... SVs Medical Section... os Et Members, Honorary Xxiil. Obituary 1900 xxill. Ordinary .. = in| EL Mentha piperita ... 136, XXXIV: Merfield, C. J., F.n.a.s., Tables to facilitate the location of the cubic parabola... 281, xlv. Meteorite from N. S. Wales 81, KVi¢ el Vi. Micrococcus uree... = 23 Moldavites : Ae . 118 Moulding boards for concrete dam... Ta We Murray River . 237 Murrumbidgee River ... 1 237 Southern Canal . 249 N Namoi River . 242 Nar'ramang initiation ceremonies 276 “Reception 4th July, 1900 PAGH New South Wales, meteorite 81, xvi. obsidian ‘ Bomb’ .. 118 New Zealand gold nuggets 260, Xxxv. Nilgiri rack ee ae 86 Nuggets, eae _ 255 gold.. ; . 259 - silver. . 255 O Obituary 1899 ... oP sam) 62 1900.. ..XX1l. Obsidian ‘ Bomb ‘from N. S. W. Maloy s.0.¢.¢ Officers and Members of Council for 1900-1901 vil. Ou, Eucalyptus 72, 136, 142, 286, XV. Organisation, aboriginal 262, xlv. P ‘Paddy’s River Box’ .. 143 Papers read in 1899 . 3,4 ‘Peppermint Tree’ XXXIV. — odour in Eucalyptus oils 136, xxxiv. Periodicals purchased in 1900 1x1. Port Stephens, N.S.W., abori- gines of pes O3s OXI. Proceedings of the Engineering Section at me lx: of the Society lis Publications . (iv.) R Rack Railways .. 84, xxv., Ixv. I “Red Box” . 290 Refuse, destruction of city XLVII. Reservoirs, curved concrete walls FOP cee ont EX sles Rules, alterations GOr aVilss Valle) KETDTE Russell, H.C. B.A.,C.M.G., F.R S., Current Papers No.5 XxXxXvii. —— The past droughts and recent flood at Lake George xxx. iS) Saccharomyces cerevise ... nO) Science Lectures xxv., XXix., XXXIIl. Seal Rocks Lighthouse, damage by lightning he flex XXViii. Sectional Meetings 4 Selfe, Norman, M. Inst. C.E., M. L Mech. E., Annual Address to the Engineering Section... I. (XXX.) PAGE Sewage, analysis 31, 32 biological treatment of... 29 — biolysis of ... 29 |. —— zymolysis of 29. Silver nuggets ... . 255 Smith, Henry G., F.c.s., On a new aromatic aldehyde occurring in Eucalyptusoils 286 — On the amyl ester of eudesmic acid, occurring in Eucalyptus oils (2 Ve —— On the constituent of pep- permint odour occurring in ee Renn oils, Part I. ol BG; ERIK, — Ona Eucalyptus oil con- taining 60 per cent. of geranyl acetate ...142, xxxix. State water rights ... 283 Strength of brickwork when subjected to stresses XLIII., lxv. Strub system of rack railways 88 Sun’s motion in space 148, xxxviii. oe Thiselton-Dyer, Sir W. Turner, K.C.M.G., M.A., F.B.S , elected honorary member... SKILL, PAGE’ Transverse tests of brickwork Lxv1. V Victorian gold nuggets 259, xxxv. Volumes of solids as related to transverse sections 36, xili.. WwW Warren, Prof. W. H., M. Inst. CE., M. am. Soc.C.E., and Barra- clough, B.E., M.M.E., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., Experimental investigation on thestrength of brickwork when subjected to compressive and trans- verse stresses LXi1t., Ixv. Water mills cis wou SSS rights in Australia. 233, xi. supply of Sydney... oj Will. Weapons, aborigines of Port Stephens, N.S.W. 103, xxix. Windmills Pe.6-c Wool and presses. XXXVIL. a Zymolysis of sewage 29° / @ - ® - ’ ¥. : aI i} (a=) > is 4 M : : i - 4 ‘ te . { ‘Ss fac} see , Geb ‘ cs. ...*K. K. Geologische Reichsanstalt. 18 2 es . *K. K. Gradmessungs-Bureau. 19 er ...*K. K. Naturhistorische Hofmuseums. 20 is bt ...*K. K. Zoologisch- Botanische Gesellschaft. ZL ” r 6 ...*Section fiir Naturkunde des Osterreichischen- Touristen Club. Belgium. 22 BRUSSELS .. ...¥Académie Royale des Sciences, des Lettres et de Beaux Arts. 23 ys oe .. *Musée Royale d’ Histoire Naturelle de Belgique. 24 ey is ...*Observatoire Royal de Belgique. 25 is i ... "Société Royale Malacologique de Belgique. 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 LIf£GE 99 eee LUXEMBOURG Mons Rio DE JANEIRO. Sao Patio SANTIAGO... COPENHAGEN BoRDEAUX CAEN Dison HAVRE LILLE 99> eee MARSEILLES MONTPELLIER NANTES Paris EXCHANGES AND PRESENTATIONS. ...¥Société Géologique de Belgique. ...*Société Royale des Sciences de Liége. ...*Institut Royale Grand-Ducal de Luxembourg. ...*Société des Sciences, des Arts et des Lettres du Hainaut. Brazil. *Observatorio do Rio de Janeiro. ...* Museu Paulista. Chili. ...*Sociedad Cientifica Alemana. Denmark. ...*Société Royale des Antiquaires du Nord. France. ...*Académie Nationale des Sciences, Belles-Lettres et Arts. ...*Académie Nationale des Sciences, Arts et Belles- Lettres. ...* Académie des Sciences, Arts et Belles-Lettres. ...*Société Géologique de Normandie. ...*Société Géologique du Nord. ...*University. ...*Faculté des Sciences de Marseille. ...*Académie des Sciences et Lettres. ...*Socicté des Sciences Naturelles de Ouest de la France. ...*Académie des Sciences de l'Institut de France. ...*Bibliothéque de l’ Université 4 la Sorbonne. ...*Comptoir Géologique de Paris. ...*Ecole d’ Anthropologie de Paris. ...*Ecole Nationale des Mines. ... Ecole Normale Supérieure. ...™Ecole Polytechnique. . Faculté de Médecine de Paris. ...* Feuille des Jeunes Naturalistes. ...* Institut Pasteur. ...“Musée d’ Histoire Naturelle. ...*Ministére de l’Instruction Publique, des Beaux Arts, et des Cultes. ...*Observatoire de Paris. ...* Revue de l’ Aéronautique. . Service hydrographic de la Marine. ... Société Botanique. ... *Société d’ Anatomie. ...*Société d’ Anthropologie. ...*Société de Biologie. ... Société de Chirurgie de Paris. ...*“Société d’ Encouragement, pour I’ Industrie Nationale. ...*Société Entomologique de France. ...*Société Francaise de Minéralogie. ...*Société Francaise de Physique. ...*Société de Géographie. ...*Société Géologique de France. ... Société Météorologique de France. ... Société Philotechnique. ...* Société Zoologique de France, EXCHANGES AND PRESENTATIONS, 72 Sr. Ertenne ...*Société de Industrie Minérale. 73 ToULOUSE ...¥Académie des Sciences, {nscriptions et Belles- Lettres. 74, VILLEFRANCHE- suntan Alp. Laboratoire de Zoologie. Mar.) : Germany. 75 BREMEN... ...*Naturwissenschaftliche Vereine zu Bremen. 76 BERLIN ... ... Deutsche Chemische Gesellschaft. ae 5 ane ...*Gesellschaft ftir Erdkunde. 78 a 8a ...*Koéniglich preussische Akademie der Wissen- schaften. 79 Ay abs ...*Kéniglich preussische Meteorologische Instituts. 80 Bonn... ...*Naturhistorische Vereins der Preussischen Rheinlande, Westfalens und des Reg,- Bezirks Osnabriick. 81 Brunswick .....* Vereins ftir Naturwissenschaft zu Braunschweig. 82 CaRLSRUHE _...*Grossherzoglich-Badische Polytechnische Schule. 83 S ...*Naturwissenschaftliche Verein zu Sarlsruhe. 84 CASSELL ... ...* Verein fir Naturkunde. 85 CHEMNITZ ...“Naturwissenschaftliche Gesellschaft zu Chemnitz. 86 DRESDEN ...*Konigliches Mineralogisch Geologische und Praehistorisches Museum. 87 eA ...*Offentliche Biblothek. 88 sy ...* Statistische Bureau des Ministeriums des Innern zu Dresden. 89 ss ...*Vereins fiir Erdkunde zu Dresden. 90 ELBERFELD ...*¥Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein in Elderfeld. 91 Frankrurt a/m *Senckenbergische Naturforschende Gesellschaft. 92 FreIBERG (Saxony) Koniglich-Sachsische Berg-Akademie. 93 FrerpureG (Baden)*Naturforschende Gesellschaft. 94 GIESSEN ... ...“Oberhessische Gesellschaft ftir Natur-und-Heil- kunde. . 95 GORLITZ... ...*Naturforschende Gesellschaft in Gérlitz. 96 GOTTINGEN ...*Konigliche Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften in Gottingen. . 97 Haute, A.S. ...*Kaiserliche Leopoldina-Carolina Akademie der Deutschen Naturforscher. 98 HamBurG ...~Deutsche Meterologische Gesellschaft. 99 2 = ...*Deutsche Seewarte. 100 pe As ...*Geographische Gesellschaft in Hamburg. 101 x ie ...*¥ Naturhistorische Museum. TN se ann ...* Vereins fiir Naturwissenschaftliche Unter-haltung in Hamburg. 103 HetpeLsere ..,*Naturhistorisch Medicinische Verein zu Heidel- berg. 104 JENA... ...*Medicinisch Naturwissenschaftliche Gesellschaft. 105 KoniasserG- ...* Konigliche Physikalisch-6konomische Gesellschaft. 106 LeErpzie ... ...*Konigliche Sachsische Gesellschaft der Wissen- schaften. HO, = ~,; ee ...*Vereins fiir Erdkunde. 108 LUBECE ... ...*Naturhistorische Museum. 199 MarBure ...*Gesellschaft zur Beforderung der gesammten Naturwissenschaften in Marburg. 110 PP > ...* University. 111 Metz _... ...¥ Vereins fiir Erdkunde zu Metz. 112 MuLHOUSE ...* société Industrielle de Mulhouse. 113 Munic#... ...* Koniglich Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften in Miinchen. 114 115 NurREMBERG 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124, 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164: 165 166 167 168 169 MunICcnH ... STUTTGART 33 33 EXCHANGES AND PRESENTATIONS. ... Société Botanique Bavaroise. ..*Naturhistorische Gesellschaft zu Nurnberg. ...*Kénigliches Statistisches Landesamt. ...*Verein fiir Vaterlandische Naturkunde in Wurt- see temberg. *Wirttembergische Vereins fiir Handelsgeographie. Great Britain and the Colonies. BIRMINGHAM 33 393 BRISTOL . CAMBORNE CAMBRIDGE KEw LEEDS aA acts LIVERPOO LONDON ... *Birmingham and Midland Institute. *Birmingham Natural History and Philosophical Society. ... Mason University College. ...* Bristol Naturalists’ Society. ...*Mining Association and Institute of Cornwall. ...¥Philosophical Society. ... Public Free Library. ...*Union Society. . University Library. ...* Royal Gardens. ...*Leeds Philosophical and Literary Society. .. *Yorkshire College. ...*Literary and Philosophical Society. ... Aéronautical Society of Great Britain. ... Agent-General (two copies). .. *Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. ...*British Economic Association. ...* British Museum (Natural History). ... Chemical Society. ... Colonial Office, Downing Street. ...* Editor, Encyclopedia Britannica, 4 Soho Square, W. ...*Editor, Science Abstracts. ...*Geological Society. .. Institute of Chemistry of Great Britain and Ireland ...*Imperial Institute. ...*Institution of Civil Engineers. ...*Institution of Mechanical Engineers. ...*Institution of Naval Architects. ...*Iron and Steel Institute. ... “Library, South Kensington Museum. ...*Linnean Society. ... London Institution. .. *Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty. ...* Meteorological Office. ...¥ Mineralogical Society. ... Museum of Practical Geology. . Patent Office Library. ...*Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain. ...*Physical Society of London. ...*Quekett Microscopical Club. ...*Royal Agricultural Society of England. ...*Royal Astronomical Society. ...*Royal College of Physicians. ...“Royal College of Surgeons. ...*Royal Colonial Institute. ...*Royal Geographical Society. ...*"Royal Historical Society. ...*Royal Institution of Great Britain. ...*Royal Meteorological Society. ..*Royal Microscopical Society. Royal School of Mines. EXCHANGES AND PRESENTATIONS. 170 Lonpon ... ...*Royal Society. 171 es -...*Royal Society of Literature. £72 ss ...“Royal United Service Institution. 173 ae ...*Sanitary Institute of Great Britain. 174 . ...*Society of Arts. 175 be ... University of London. 176 we ...*War Office—(Intelligence Division). 177 63 i .. *Zoological Society. 178 MancHesteR_....*Conchological Society of Great Britain and Ireland. 179 ay ...*Literary and Philosophical Society. 180 a ...“Manchester Geological Society. 181 ee ... Owens College. 182 MirrreLp ...* Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic Society. 183 eee One *Natural History Society of Northumberland, TYNE ... ees Durham and Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 184 a _*N orth of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers. 185 is ... Society of Chemical Industry. 186 OxForRD ... ...*Bodleian Library. 187 a 2 ...*Radcliffe Library. 188 - ...*Radcliffe Observatory. °189 PENZANCE ...*Royal Geological Society of Cornwall. 190 PuymMouTH ...“Plymouth Institution and Devon and Cornwall Natural History Society. 191 Winpsor ... The King’s Library. CAPE: OF GOOD HOPE. 192 Cape Town ...*South African Philosophical Society. CEYLON. 193 CoLomBo ...*Royal Asiatic Society, (Ceylon Branch). DOMINION OF CANADA. — Sas (Nova *Nova Scotian Institute of Science. cotia) 195 Hamitton, (Ont.)*Hamilton Association. 196 MontTREAL ...¥Natural History Society of Montreal. 197 s ...*Royal Society of Canada. 198 OrTawa ... ...*Geological Survey of Canada. 199 QUEBEC ... ...*Literary and Historical Society. 200 Toronto .. *Canadian Institute. 201 Le = .. *University. 202 WINNIPEG ...“Manitoba Historical and Scientific Society. INDIA. 203 CALCUTTA ...*Asiatic Society of Bengal. 204 J3 ye ...*Geological Survey-of India. IRELAND. 205 DuBLIN ... ...*Royal Dublin Society. 206 » aS ...*Royal Geological Society of Ireland. 207 “s ...*Royal Irish Academy. JAMAICA. 208 KINGSTON ...*Institute of Jamaica. MAURITIUS. 209 Port Louis. ...*Royal Society of Arts and Sciences. 210 . . Société d’Acclimatation de I’ Ile Maurice. NEW SOUTH WALES. 211 RicumMonp ... Hawkesbury Agricultural College. 212 SYDNEY ... ...*Australian Museum. 213 7% oe. ...*Botanic Gardens. 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 244, 245 246 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 256 257 258 259 260 261 263 7 EXCHANGES AND PRESENTATIONS. SYDNEY ... 33 AUCKLAND DUNEDIN WELLINGTON 33 393 BRISBANE ABERDEEN EDINBURGH GLASGOW 39 St. ANDREWS ADELAIDE ...*Royal Geographical Society of Australasia (South .. *Royal Society of South Australia. ...*University. ...¥ British Medical Association (N.S. Wales Branch). ...¥Department of Mines and Agriculture. .. *Department of Public Instruction. ...“Department of Public Works. ...*Engineering Association of New South Wales. ...*Government Statistician. ...¥Institution of Surveyors, N.S. Wales. ...*Linnean Society of New South Wales. ...*Mining Department. ... N. S. Wales Government Railways Institute. ...*Observatory. ...*Public Library. ...*Royal Geographical Society of Australasia (New South Wales Branch). ... School of Arts. ...* Technological Museum. ...“United Service Institution of New South Wales. | ...* University. NEW ZEALAND. ...*Auckland Institute. CHRISTCHURCH.. . Philosophical Institute of Cantertaen . Otago Institute. ...*Colonial Museum. ...“New Zealand Institute. ...*Polynesian Society. QUEENSLAND. ...*Acclimatisation Society of Queensland. ...*Geological Survey of Queensland. ... Parliamentary Library. ...*Queensland Museum. ...*Royal Geographical Society of Australasia (Queensland Branch.) ...*Royal Society of Queensland. SCOTLAND. ...*University. ...*Edinburgh Geological Society. .. *Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland. .. *Royal Botanic Garden. ...¥Royal Observatory. ...*Royal Physical Society. ...*Royal Scottish Geographical Society. ...*Royal Society. ...*University. ...*Geological Society of Glasgow. ...* Philosophical Society of Glasgow. ...*University. ...*University. SOUTH AUSTRALIA. ...¥Geological Survey of South Australia. ... Government Botanist. ...¥Government Printer. ...*Observatory. ..*Public Library, Museum, and Art Gallery of South Australia. Australian Branch). 264 265 266 267 268 259 270 271 272 273 274 275 276 277 278 279 280 281 282 283 284: 285 286 287 288 289 290 Zt 292 293 294 295 296 297 298 299 300 301 302 303 304 305 306 307 308 309 310 EXCHANGES AND PRESENTATIONS. STRAITS SETTLEMENTS. SINGAPORE .. *Royal Asiatic Soviety (Straits Branch). TASMANIA. HoBart ... ...“Royal Society of Tasmania. LauNcEsToN ...*Geological Survey of Tasmania. VICTORIA. BALLARAT ...*School of Mines and Industries. Maryporoucu... District School of Mines, Industries and Science. MeLBOURNE...*Australasian Institute of Mining Engineers. A ...*Field Naturalists’ Club of Victoria. 35 ...*Government Botanist. ie ...“Government Statist. an ...*Mining Department. A ...*Observatory. 5 ...*Public Library, Museums, and National Gallery. ae ...*Registrar-General. As ...*Royal Geographical Society of Australasia (Vic- torian Branch). oe ...“Royal Society of Victoria. a ...* University. ss ...* Victorian Institute of Surveyors. of ...“Working Men’s College. STAWELL ...*School of Mines, Art, Industry, and Science. WESTERN AUSTRALIA. PERTH ... ...*Museum. . Hayti. Port-au-Prince Société de Sciences et de Géographie. Italy. BoLoGna ...¥R. Accademia delle Scienze dell’Istituto. » sel ... Universita di Bologna. FLORENCE ...*Societa Africana d’Italia (Sezione Fiorentina). As Gh ae ...*Societa Entomologica Italiana. Sap tach ...*Societa Italiana di Antropologia e di Etnologia. GENOA ..,. ...*Museo Civico di Storia Naturale. MILAN ... ...* Reale Istituto Lombardo di Scienze Lettere ed Arti. Es Aid ...*Societa Italiana di Scienze Naturali. MopeEna... ...*¥Reoia Accademia di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti. NAPLES ... ...*Societa Africana d’Italia. ic 455 ...*Societa Reale di Napoli (Accademia delle Scienze Fisiche e Matematiche). = a ...*Statione Zoologica (Dr. Dohrn). PALERMO ...¥Reale Accademia Palermitana di Scienze Lettere ed Arti. ay aes ... Reale Istituto Tecnico. PIsa ee ...*Societa Italiana di Fisica. A i ...*Societa Toscana di Scienze Naturali. Rome... ...¥Accademia Pontificia de Nuovi Lincei. % sas ...*Biblioteca e Archivio Tecnico (Ministero dei Lavori Pubblico). a See ...*Reale Accademia dei Lincei. = Bie ...*R. Comitato Geologico d’ Italia. - ee ...*R. Ufficio Centrale di Meteorologico e di Geo- dinamico. - ...*Societa Geografica Italiana. SIENA... ...*R. Accademia dei Fisiocritici in Siena. EVEN . 2. ...*Reale Accademia della Scienze. fy ed ..."Regio Osservatorio della Regia Universita. VENICE ... ...*R, Istituto Veneto di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti. 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 318 319 320 321 322 323 324 325 326 327 328 329 330 331 332 333 334 335 336 337 338 339 340 341 342 EXCHANGES AND PRESENTATIONS. Japan. ToxKI0 ...*Asiatic Society of Japan (formerly in Yokohama). 3B Sh ...¥Imperial University. Java. BATAVIA... ...*K, Natuurkundige Vereeniging in Nederl-Indié Mexico. MEXICo ... ...* Sociedad Cientifica ‘Antonio Alzate” Netherlands. AMSTERDAM ....*Académie Royale des Sciences. 50 ...*Société Royale de Zoologie. HAARLEM ...*Bibliothéque de Musée Teyler. yp we ...*Colonial Museum. 5p we ...*Société Hollandaise des Sciences. Norway. BERGEN ... ...*™Museum. ,; CHRISTIANIA ...*Kéngelige Norske Fredericks Universitet. 9 ...*Videnskabs-Selskabet i Christiania. TROMSO ... ...* Museum. Roumania. Bucuarest _...*Institutul Meteorologic al Roumaniei. Sandwich Islands. HonoLvuLtvu ...* Bernice Pauahi Museum. Russia. HELSINGFORS-_...*Société des Sciences de Finlande. KIEFF ...* Société des Naturalistes. Moscow ...*Société Impériale des Naturalistes. rf oe ...*Société Imperiale des Amis des Sciences Natur- elles d’ Anthropologie et d’ Ethnographie a Moscow (Section d’ Anthropologie). St. PETERSBURG ...*Académie Impériale des Sciences. a ...*Comité Géologique—Institut des Mines. Spain. MapDRID ... Instituto geografico y Estadistico. Sweden. | GoTHENBURG ...*Kongliga Vetenskaps-och Vitterhets-Samhiallet. STOCKHOLM ...*Kongliga Svenska Vetenskaps-Akademien. 43 ...*Kongliga Universitetet. ae ...*Kongl. Vitterhets Historie och Antiqvitets Akademien. UPSALA ... Kongliga Vetenskaps Societeten. Switzerland. BERNE ...*Société de Géographie de Berne. GENEVA ...*Institut National Genévois. LAUSANNE ...*Société Vaudoise des Sciences Naturelles. NEUCHATEL ...*Société des Sciences Naturelles de Neuchatel. ZURICH ...*Naturforschende Gesellschaft, 343 344 345 346 347 348 349 350 351 352 353 354: 355 306 357 358 359 360 361 362 363 364 365 366 367 368 369 370 371 372 373 374 375 376 377 378 379 380 381 382 383 384 385 386 387 388 389 390 391 B92 393 394 395 396 397 EXCHANGES AND PRESENTATIONS, United States of America. ALBANY ... ..*New York State Library, Albany. ANNAPOLIS (Md.) *Naval Academy. BALTIMORE ...*Maryland Geological Survey. Be Be ...“Johns Hopkins University. Beuoit (Wis.) ...*Chief Geologist. BERKELEY ...*University of California. Boston ... ...*American Academy of Arts and Sciences. - a ...*Boston Society of Natural History. . State Library of Massachusetts. BROOKVILLE (Ind. )* Brookville Society of Natural History. ...*Indiana Academy of Science. Burrato (Ind.) ...*Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences. CAMBRIDGE (Mass.)*Cambridge Entomological Club. os ...*Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College. CHEYENNE, Wyo.. *Experiment Station, Department of Agriculture. of CHICAGO ... ...*Academy of Sciences. >» ae ... American Medical Association—The Newberry Library. a i ...¥Field Columbian Museum. wes ...“University of Chicago Press. % ae .*Western Society of Engineers. CINCINNATI ...*American Association for the Advancement of Science. a aise ...*Cincinnati Society of Natural History. CLEVELAND, O. ...*Geological Society of America. COLDWATER ... Michigan Library Association. Davenport (lowa)*Academy of Natural Sciences. DENVER ... ...“Colorado Scientific Society. Easton, Pa. ...*American Chemical Society. Fort Monrox(Va.)* United States Artillery School. Hospoxen (N.J.) ...*Steven’s Institute of Technology. Iowa City (lowa) *Director lowa Weather Service. JEFFERSON City...*Geological Survey of Missouri. Manpison (Wis.)...*Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. Minneapouis’-...*Minnesota Academy of Natural Sciences. NEWHAVEN (Conn) *Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences. New York ...“American Geographical Society. fe ...*American Institute of Mining Engineers. a ...*American Museum of Natural History. a ...“American Society of Civil Engineers. = ...*Editor Journal of Comparative Medicine and Veterinary Archives. . - ...“New York Academy of Sciences. a ...“New York Microscopical Society. ...*School of Mines, Columbia University. Pato ALTO (Cal.)...*Geological Survey of Arkansas. PHILADELPHIA ...*Academy of Natural Science. a ...*American Entomological Society. = ...“American Philosophical Society. = ...* Franklin Institute. o ...*Geological Survey of Pennsylvania. a ...* Philadelphia Commercial Museum. iS ...* University of Pennsylvania. y ...“Waener Free Institute of Science. 5 ...*Zoological Society of Philadelphia. SaLem (Mass.) ...*Hssex Institute. St. Louis ... ...*Aeademy of Science. a» . ...*Missouri Botanical Garden. 399 ir at oo 403 464 405 406 407 408 409 410 411 i io or Se oe ee eee 412 : 413 “A 414 415 q 416 | 417 418 419 4.20 421 eS lO eer ee Saeco te a eS nt, ile a, ae c 398 San FRANCISCO 400 ScRaNTON (Pa.) .. 401 URBANA 402 WASHINGTON Asia, Africa, South America, &c. Australasia Tie Editors of Periodicals Europe (excepting United Kingdom) India, Canada, and other Colonies United Kingdom Unite States of America The Society’s House, Sydney, 31st December, 1900. EXCHANGES AND PRESENTATIONS. ...*California Academy of Sciences. ..*California State Mining Bureau. — _..*Illinois State Laboratory of Natural His ...*Bureauof Education(Department of the i: .. *Bureau of Ethnology. | ...*Chief of Engineers (War Departmen se ...*Chief of Ordnance (War Department). ...* Department of Agriculture, Library. ce ...* Department of Agriculture, Weather Bureau. $3 ...* Director of the Mint (Treasury Department) ...*Library (Navy Department). ...*National Academy of Sciences. ...*Office of Indian Affairs (Department of ...* Philosophical Society. ...*Secretary (Department of the Interior). ...*Secretary (Treasury Department). ...*Smithsonian Institution. be ...*Surgeon General (U.S. Army). oe ...*U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey (Tee t ...*U.S. Geological Survey. ...*U. S. National Museum ( Depariiieass of ae ..*War Department. .*The Colliery Engineer Co. Interior). Department). Interior). . U.S. Patent Office. SUMMARY. Total J. H. MAIDEN G. H. KNIBBS { Hon. Secretari | JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE . |ROYAL SOCIETY ‘OF AO EOL Pe ar St Ce nl REOPEN TRE ee oe ee eee NEW SOUTH WALES, EDITED BY PHE HONORARY SECRETARIES. THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN. Try CRMC TU Sa. nt Se een PEMD te CY alt p PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, 5 ELIZABETH STREET NORTH, SYDNEY. “fs LONDON AGENTS : ey GEORGE ROBERTSON & Co., PROPRIETARY LIMITED, 17 Warwick SQuaRE, PATERNOSTER Row, Lonpon, E.C. 1900. i i ene ; TFS OB Ind CONTENTS. VOLUME XXXIV. ie . - PaGe. Qrricers For 1900-1901 ve is sie Bato eas eG) eererem Menmrrrts Wop, s ) Ast. 1 —Prestpent’s Appress. By W. M. Hamlet, F.1.¢., F.c.8. 1 Ar r. I1.—On the relation, in determining the volumes of solids, , whose parallel transverse sections are n‘° functions of their position on the axis, between the number, position, and coefficients of the sections, and the (positive) indices of the functions. By G. H. Knibbs, r.r.a,s. AH ie 36 . {12 —On the amyl ester of eudesmic acid, sacar in Eucalyptus Oils. By Henry G. Smith, v.c.s. “an 72 . 1V.—Note on a new Meteorite from New South Wales. vy R. T. Baker v.t.s. (Platei.). . . 81 V.—Notes on Rack Railways. By C. O. Bitae: M. Inst. C.E. 84: - VI.—Notes on the damage caused by lightning to Seal Rocks Lighthouse on 10th July,1900. By C. W. Darley, M.Inst.C.E. J gines of Port Stephens, N.S.W. By, W. J. Enright, B.a. _ (Communicated by R. H. Mathews, t.s.) (Plates iii.,iv.):.. 108 ‘Ann. VILLI. —Note on an obsidian “ Bomb” from New South Wales. 3 (Platei.) . say 98 ‘Arr. VII.—The be puade: weapons anid manufintiaed of the ‘ork : as By &. T. Baker, r.u.s. (Plate vi.) ... 118 ‘Arr. IX.—Marriage and descent among the eaeedian! Doar . F ' gimes. By R. H. Mathews, Ls. a erie 48 ior! x .—On the constituent of peppermint ee Schatine in many Eucalyptus Oils, Part Il. By Henry G. Smith, r.c.s. 136 — Arr. XI.—On a Eucalyptus Oil containing 60 per cent. of geranyl 4 acetate. By Henry G. Smith, r.c.s. ... s o fee LAD “Aer. X1i.—The Sun’s motion in Space. Part I. History and a Bibliography. By G. H. Knibbs, r.p.acs. ... 148 vAgr. XIII.—Intercolonial Water Rights as affected by Wedeatien, ‘a By H. G. McKinney, M. Inst.C.e. (Plate v.) ... am ee ‘Agr. XIV.—On the crystalline structure of some Silver aid Copper Nuggets. By A. caer M.A., LL.D., F.B.S. Plates vii.-ix. ... 255 Arr. XV.—On the perihine Sirachite or some “Gold Naneats : from Victoria, New Zealand, and Klondyke. By A. Liver- sidge, M.A., LL.D.,; F.R.8. Plates x.—xiil. fe: a cere -135°) Arr, XVIL —Tables to iadtlitihe the es of of the By C. J. Merfield, F.R.a.s. ae rae net Art. X VITI.—On a new aromatic aldehyde occurring in Et Oils. By Henry G. Smith, F.c.s. ae Beg. a : Arr. XIX.—Annual Address to the Engineering | Sectic Norman Selfe, M. Inst, C.E, a epee 8 , ART. XXI he cement eee on the adeae work when subjected to compressive and transverse: sti S. H. Babhaciodton: B.E., M.M. Bes, Assoc. M, ae ens ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS... “2 Cs oe * PROCEEDINGS OF THE ENGINEDRING SECTION... ... _ ae INDEX TO VoLUME XXXIV. ... ioe eee fos es _ ay i2'? ai mn e,GRS Si Tt i Boot Fo at ty Po sis at ya sk Ss fk ERERT RE SER