| | . | | ir. POouRNAL “om AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL: SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES FOR 1900. (INCORPORATED 1881.) Ww Oils. XXXLYV. EDITED BY THE HONORARY SECRETARIES. THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE STATEMENTS MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN. PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, 5 ELIZABETH STREET NORTH, SYDNEY. LONDUN AGENTS: GEORGE ROBERTSON & Co., PROPRIETARY LIMITED, . 17 WaRWICK SQUARE, PATERNOSTER Row, Lonpon, E.C. 1900. NOTICE. Tue Roya Society of New South Wales originated in 1821 as the ‘Philosophical Society of Australasia”; after an interval of inactivity, it was resuscitated in 1850, under the name of the *¢ Australian Philosophical Society,” by which title it was known until 1856, when the name was changed to the ‘ Philosophical Society of New South Wales”; in 1866, by the sanction of Her Most Gracious Majesty the Queen, it assumed its present title, and was incorporated by Act of the Parliament of New South Wales in 1881. is yl Beer ie Re TO AUTHORS. Authors of papers desiring illustrations are advised to consult the editors (Honorary Secretaries) before preparing their drawings. Unless otherwise specially permitted, such drawings should be carefully executed to a large scale on smooth white Bristol board in intensely black Indian ink; so as to admit of the blocks being prepared directly therefrom, in a form suitable for photographic ‘“‘process.” The size of a full page plate in the Journal is 44 in. x 62in. The cost of all original drawings, and of colouring plates must be borne by Authors. CORRIGENDA. Page 18, line 19 from the top: place the H in this line of the formula on to the next lower line and a little below the line, thus :— ae HN—O—N/ \ H Page 23, line 15 from the top, for ‘ a,’ read ‘ an.’ » 28, line 19 from the top, insert the foot-note number, < !.’ » 28, second line from the bottom, for ‘ Beyerinck,’ read ‘Bejerinck.’ . » 29, fifth line from the bottom, for ‘ years,’ read ‘ years’.’ » 88, Formula (3), substitute p for q, as index of the second quantity in brackets, in the B term. . » 48, Formula (19), the z in Az should be a suffix. » 44, Prop. (e), interpolate ‘two’ between ‘the’ and ‘ positive.’ » 59, Table IX , put A after 7 in the second line of formule. » 61, Formula (51), the index of k should be 7, not p. » 64, Table XI., the bracket is omitted before aA. » 118, Note on an Obsidian “Bomb” from N.S.W., ‘with Plate vi.’ omitted. » 149, for ‘ ogui,’ read ‘ ogni,’ » 181, for ‘ toiles,’ read ‘ étoiles.’ » 263, insert after ‘and,’ and before ‘camped’ on line 2, ‘one of us [R. H. Mathews] having.’ », 289 and 291, for ‘E. cneroifolia,’ read ‘H. cneorifolia.’ Vol. <5 II. s ITT. ae IV. be Vi. a VI. a VII. 3 VIII, ne IX. be) pa XI. ee XIT TLL oe he XG 2 OVE ek XV VLD 5 Xvi Dg SOX ae XX, py) UKM, Ut 5-O:40 . XXMI XXIV; oe XEXEV I: OX Vil PxOxvall » XXVIII XOXO OH ARKO XO Se eXeXeXGl ox XOX EXERGY, PUBLICATIONS. O Transactions of the Philosophical Society, N.S. W., 1862-5, pp. 374, out of print. I. Transactions of the Royal Society, N.S. W., 1867, pp. 88, _,, X. Journal and Proceedings 39 99 29 3: 99 bb) 1868, ,, 1205. 1869, ,, 173, a 1870, ,, 106, 85 1871, S 72, ” 1872, ,, 123, - 1873, ,, 182, 9 1874, ,,116, _,, 1875, ,, 2385, —,, 1876, ,, 3383, 44, 1877, 9 305, ” 1878, ,, 324, price10s.6d. 1879, ,, 255, ,, 10s. 6d. 1880, ,, 391, ,, 10s. 6d. 1881, ,, 440, ,, 10s. 6d. 1882, ,, 327, ,, 10s. 6d. 1883, ,, 324, ,, 10s. 6d. 1884, ,, 224, ,, 10s. 6d. 1885, ,, 240, ,, 10s. 6d. 1886, ,, 396, ,, 10s. 6d. 1887, ,, 296, ,, 10s. 6d. 1888, ,, 390. ,, 10s. 6d. 1889, ,, 5384, ,, 10s. 6d. 1890, ,, 290, ,, 10s. 6d. 1891, ,, 348, ,, 10s. 6d. 1892, ,, 426, ,, 10s. 6d. 1893, ,, 580, ,, 10s. 6d. 1894, ,, 368, ,, 10s. 6d. 1895, ,, 600, ,, 10s. 6d. 1896, ,, 568, ,, 10s. 6d. 1897, ,, 626, ,, 10s. 6d. 1898, ,, 476, ,, 10s. 6d. 1899, ,, 400, ,, 10s. 6d. 1900, ,, 484, ,, 10s. 6d. w i) CONTENTS. VOLUME XXXIV. ; Orricers FOR 1900-1901 List or Mempers, Xe. ... as das uae AaE ENG Art. I.—Presipent’s Appress. By W. M. Hamlet, F.1.c., F.C.s. Art, II.—On the relation, in determining the volumes of solids, whose parallel.transverse sections are ni* functions of their - position on the axis, between the number, position, and coefficients of the sections, and the (positive) indices of the functions. By G. H. Knibbs, F.R.A.8. wit Arr. III.—On the amyl ester of eudesmic acid, Coourane in Eucalyptus Oils. By Henry G. Smith, r.c.s. : Art. IV.—Note on a new Meteorite from New South Wales. By R. T. Baker F.u.s. (Platei.) . we Art. V.—Notes on Rack Railways. By C. oO mes M. Inst. C.E. ArT. VI.—Notes on the damage caused by lightning to Seal Rocks Lighthouse on 10th July,1900. By C. W. Darley, M.Inst.C.E. (Plate i.) . Sb Art. VII.—The ieniptiage: weapons sid aimaatnetaves of ane ioe gines of Port Stephens, N.S.W. By, W. J. Enright, B.a. (Communicated by R. H. Mathews, L.s.) (Plates iii., iv.)... Arr, VIII.—Note on an obsidian “Bomb” from New South Wales. By R. T. Baker, F.u.s. (Plate vi.) Art. [X.—Marriage and descent among the ‘Austen “Npéet gines. By R. H. Mathews, L.s. : an Art. X.—On the constituent of peppermint Saou Sccnning in many Eucalyptus Oils, Part I. By Henry G. Smith, F.c.s. - Art. XI.—On a Eucalyptus Oil containing 60 per cent. of geranyl acetate. By Henry G. Smith, F.cs. ... is Die wid Art. XII.—The Sun’s motion in Space. Part I. History and Bibliography. By G. H. Knibbs, F.R.a.s. Art. XIII.—Intercolonial Water Rights as affected by Moderation! By H. G. McKinney, M. Inst.c.E. (Plate v.) Art. XIV.—On the crystalline structure of some Silver ana Copper Nuggets. By A. ee: M.A., LL.D., F.B.S. Plates vii. — 1x. Art. XV.—On the epedniline, Mrueture ae some ‘eotd Napeete from Victoria, New Zealand, and Klondyke. By A. Liver- sidge, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. Plates x.—xiii. Re ues Paau. (vii.) (xi.) if 36 72 81 8A, 98 103 118 120 136 142 148 233 255 259 (vi) PAGE Art. XVI.—The organisation, language and initiation ceremonies of the Aborigines of the South-east Coast of N. S. Wales. By R. H. Mathews, t.s., and Miss M. M. Everitt ... . 262 Arr. XVII.—Tables to facilitate the location of the Cubic Paratoln By C. J. Merfield, F.R,a.s. 5 281 Art. XVIII.—On a new aromatic aldehyde soonrineg in Eueainpene Oils. By Henry G. Smith, F.c.s. ae 286 Art. XIX.—Annual Address to the Bugineering Sections By Norman Selfe, M, Inst, C.E, Shee ee a Art. XX.—Curved concrete walls for storage reservoirs. By C. W. Darley, M. Inst. C.E.. " oe MED Art. XXI.—Experimental inv ecti pate on ‘the strength of brick- work when subjected to compressive and transverse stresses. By Professor W. H. Warren, M. Inst. C.E., M. Am, Soc.C.E., and S. H. Barraclough, B.E., M.M.E., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E, beh we. LXIII. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS ... es ae ee he 1. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ENGINEERING Seaton Bae ti et ewe INDEX TO VoLUME XXXIV. ... 360 ans oa en (xxvii.) 7" Koval Society of Nebo South cHales. @Qimepe ees Oi LoOOO-1907 . Honorary President: HIS EXCELLENCY THE RIGHT HON. WILLIAM, EARL BEAUCHAMP, xk.c.m.e. President: Pror. LIVERSIDGEH, m.A., Lu.D., F.R.8. Vice-Presidents: CHARLES MOORE, F.t.s. HENRY DEANE, M.A., M. Inst. C.E. Pror. T. W. E. DAVID, B.A., F.R.s. W. M. HAMLET, F.c.s., F.1.¢. Hon. Treasurer: H. G. A. WRIGHT, m.R.¢.s. Eng., u.s.a. Lond. Hon. Secretaries: J. H. MAIDEN, F.1:s. | G. H. KNIBBS, F.R.a.s. Members of Council: C. 0. BURGE, M. Inst. C.E. H. C. RUSSELL, B.a., C.M.G., F.B.S. C. W. DARLEY, M. Inst. C.E. HENRY G. SMITH, r.c.s. F. B. GUTHRIE, F.c.s. Pror. ANDERSON STUART, u.p. H. A. LENEHAN, F.R.a.s. J. STUART THOM F. H. QUAIFE, m.a., m.p. F. TIDSWELL, m.8., v.p.H. Assistant Secretary: W. H. WEBB. FORM OF BEQUEST. ~ £ bequeath the sum of £ to the Roya Society oF New Soutu WaAtEs, Incorporated by Act of the Parliament of New South Wales in 1881, and I declare that the receipt of the Treasurer for the time being of the said Corporation shall be an effectual discharge for the said Bequest, which I direct to be paid within calendar months after my decease, without any reduction whatsoever, whether on account of Legacy Duty thereon or otherwise, out of such part of my estate as may be lawfully applied for that purpose. [ Those persons, who feel disposed to benefit the Royal Society sf New South Wales by Legacies, are recommended to instruct their Solicitors to adopt the abore Form of Bequest. | VAVAVAVAVAVATAVAVAUACAVAUAVATAVATAVAVALAVAUAUALAUAUACATACALA| PAVAVAVIAVIVAVLVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVANVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAYAVAYAYAYAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAYAVAYAVAVATATATATAUAAVATAVAYATAVAVALAVATAVA AY AVAVATATALALTAVATAUAYIVIVIVIVITIVIVIVIVIVIVIVAVIVIVIVIVITA Aa A NOTICE. Members are particularly requested to communicate any change of address to the Hon. Secretaries, for which purpose this slip is inserted. Corrected Address: Peeressevesese COO S TOS OSEE EHTEL SCH EOE CH OOD FELT FE OSE OOH OES OOH EEE Hee HSH HHH OHHHOH FHF THOTT SHH THHOET EOD Titles, TAT et ee oa a! cou Srarat tls aihlottinsWinidiclalovelete eee oesesesesereore @ceceoso Soot cee 1D ey ere ee ee To the Hon. Secretaries, The Royal Society of N. 8. Wales, 5 Elizabeth Street, Sydney. LIST OF THE MEMBERS OF THE The Hopal Society of Few Sout) Wales. P Members who have contributed papers which have been published in the Society’s Transactions or Journal; papers published in the Transactions of the Philosophical Society are also included. The numerals indicate the number of such contributions. ne pte Members. ected. 1877 Abbott, The Hon. Sir Joseph Palmer, Knt., K.c.M.G., M.L.A., © 1877 | PS 1864 1895 1890 | P2 1885 1898 1877 1896 1899 1878 1894 | P7 1900 1894: 1895 | P4 1896 1895 | P7 1894. 1898 1877 1876 1900 1869' P2 Speaker of the Legislative Assembly, Castlereagh-street. Abbott, W. E,, ‘Abbotsford,’ Wingen. Adams, P. F., ‘ Casula,, Liverpool. Adams, J. H. M., Atheneum Club, p.r. Broughton Cottage, St. James’ Road Waverley. Allan, Percy, M. Inst. C.E., Assoc. M. Am. Soc. C.E., Engineer-in-Charge of Bridge Design, Public Works Department, Sydney. Allworth, Joseph Witter, Chief Surveyor, Lands Department, Sydney. Alexander, Frank Lee, c/o Messrs. Goodlet and Smith Ld., Cement Works, Granville. Anderson, H.C. L., u.a., Principal Librarian, Public Library of N.S. Wales, 161 Macquarie-street. _Archer, Samuel, B.z. Roy. Univ. Irel., Resident Engineer, Roads and Bridges Office, Mudgee. Atkinson, A. A., Chief Inspector of Collieries, Department of Mines, Sydney. Backhouse, Alfred P., u.a., District Court Judge, ‘Melita,’ Elizabeth Bay. Baker, Richard Thomas, F.u.s.,Curator, Technological Museum. Bale, Ernest, c.z., Public Works Department. {Balsille, George, Sandymount, Dunedin, New Zealand. Bancroft, T. L., u.s. Edin., Deception Bay, via Burpengary, Brisbane, Queensland. Barff, H. E., w.a., Registrar, Sydney University. Barraclough, S. H., B.E., M.M.E., Assoc. M. Inst.c.E., Mem. Soe. Promotion Eng. Education, Lecturer in Engineering, Sydney University; p.r. ‘Lansdowne,’ 30 Bayswater Road, Darlinghurst. Baxter, William Howe, Chief Surveyor Existing Lines Office, Railway Department; p.r. ‘Hawerby,’ Vernon-street, Strathfield. Beale, Charles Griffia, 109 Pitt-street and Warrigal Club. Belfield, Algernon H., ‘ Eversleigh,’ Dumaresq. Benbow, Clement A., 48 College-street. Bender, Ferdinand, Accountant and Auditor, 21 Elizabeth- street, North. Bensusan, 8. L., Equitable Building, George-st., Box 411 G.P.O. (xii.) Elected 1895 | Bensusan, A. J., A.B.S.u., F.c.s., Laboratory, 12 O’Connell-st. 1888 qBlaxland, Walter, F.R.c.s. Hng., L.R.c.P. Lond., Mount Barker, South Australia. 1893 Blomfield, Charles E., B.c.z. Melb., Inquiry Office, Public Works. Department, Sydney. 1898 Blunno, Michele, Government Viticultural Expert, Depart-. ment of Agriculture, Sydney. 1879 tBond, Albert, 131 Bell’s Chambers, Pitt-street. 1895 | P1| Boultbee, James W., Superintendent of Public Watering ' Places and Artesian Boring, Department of Lands. 1891 Bowman, Archer &., c.z., ‘ Keadue,’ Elizabeth Bay Road. 1893 Bowman, John, Assoc. M. Inst.C.E., Tramway Construction Branch,. Public Works Department. 1893 Bowman, Reginald, M.8. etch. M. Hdin., 261 Elizabeth-street and George-street, Parramatta. 1876 Brady, Andrew John, Lic. K. & Q. Coll. Phys. Irel., Lic. R. Coll. Sur. Irel.,. 3 Lyons’ Terrace, Hyde Park. 1891 Brennand, Henry J. W., B.a., m.B. ch.M. Syd. Univ., 203 Mac-. quarie-street. 1878 tBrooks, Joseph, F.R G.S., F.R.A.S., ‘Hope Bank,’ Nelson-street,,. Woollahra. 1896 Brown, Alexander, Newcastle. 1876 | Brown, Henry Joseph, Solicitor, Newcastle. 1891 Bruce, John Leck, Technical College, Sydney. 1898 Burfitt, W. Fitzmaurice, M.B., ch.m. Syd., B.A.; B.Sc. 311 Glebe: Road, Glebe Point. 1891 | P4| Burge, Charles Ormsby, ™.tust.c.c, Principal Assistant En- gineer, Railway Construction, ‘Fitz Johns,’ Alfred-street: N., North Sydney. 1890 Burne, Dr. Alfred, Dentist, 1 Lyons’ Terrace, Liverpool-st. 1880 Bush, Thomas James, ™. Inst.c.E., Engineer’s Office, Australian. Gas-Light Company, 163 Kent-street. 1876 Cadell, Alfred, Coramba, via South Grafton. 1897 Callender, James Ormiston, Consulting Electrical Engineer,. 20 St. James’ Court, Buckingham Gate, London S.W. 1894 Cameron, Alex. Mackenzie, Walgett. 1899 Cameron, R. B., Secretary A.M.P. Society, 87 Pitt-street. 1879 Campbell, Rev. Joseph, m.a., F.G.S., F.c.s., Te Aroha, Auckland,. New Zealand. 1900 Canty, M., ‘ Rosemont,’ 13 York-street. Wynyard Square. 1876 Cape, Alfred J., u.a. Syd,, ‘ Karoola,’ Edgecliffe Road. 1897 Cardew, John Haydon, Assoc. M, Inst. C.E., L.8., 75 Pitt-street. 1894 | P 2! Carleton, Henry R.., ™. Inst. c.z,, ‘Tarcoola,’ Nelson-st. Woollahra... 1891 Carment, David, F.1.a. Gt. Brit. & Irel., ¥.F.A. Scot., Australian. Mutual Provident Society, 87 Pitt-street. 1879 | P1|{Chard, J. S., Licensed Surveyor, Armidale. 1878 Chisholm, Edwin, m.R.c.s. Eng., u.s.a. Lond., 82 Darlinghurst. Road. 1885 Chisholm, William, m.p. Lond., 1389 Macquarie-street, North. ‘ 1888 Clubbe, C. P. B., u.r.c Pp. Lond., u.R.c.8. Eng., 195 Macquarie-st. 1896 Cook, W. E., m.c.z. Melb. Univ., M. Inst.c.z., District Engineer, Water and Sewerage Department, North Sydney. lected 11876 11893 1878 1876 1855 1882 1881 1892 1880 1886 _ 1869 1870 1899 1891 1875 1890 1876 1877 1886 1892 1878 1885 1877 1899 1894. 1875 1880 1879 PL Pd P3 P 14 PI P2 Pi P12 (xiii. ) Codrington, John Frederick, mu.r.c.s. Eng., L.R.c.P. Lond., L.R C.P. Edin , ‘ Holmsdale, Chatswood. Cohen, Algernon A., m.B., M.D. Aberd., M.R.C.S. Hng., 61 Dar- linghurst Road. Colquhoun, George, Crown Solicitor, ‘Rossdhu,’ Belmore Road, Hurstville. Colyer, J. U. G., Australian Gas-Light Co., 163 Kent-street. Comrie, James, ‘ Northfield,’ Kurrajong Heights, via Richmond. Cornwell, Samuel, Australian Brewery, Bourke-st., Waterloo. Coutie, W. H., m.8.,ch.B., Univ. Melb., ‘Warminster,’ Canter- bury Road, Petersham. Cowdery, George R., Assoc. M. Inst.c.E, Engineer for Tramways, Public Works Buildings, Phillip-street p.r. ‘Glencoe,’ Torrington Road, Strathfield. Cox, The Hon. George Henry, u.u.c.. Mudgee: and Warrigal Club, 145 Macquarie-street. Crago, W.H., m.R.0.s. Eng., u.R.c.P. Lond., 16 College-street, Hyde Park. Creed, The Hon. J. Mildred, m.tu.c., u.R.c.s. Eng., u.R.c.P. Hdin., 195 Elizabeth-street. Croudace, Thomas, Lambton. Cullen, Hon. W. P., m.A., Lu.p., M.u.c., Barrister-at-Law, ‘Tregoyd,’ Mosman. Curran, Rev. J. Milne, Lecturer in Geology, Technical College, Sydney. Dangar, Fred. H., c/o Messrs. Dangar, Gedye, & Co., Mer- cantile Bank Chambers, Margaret-street. Dare, Henry Harvey, M.£., Assoc. M. Inst.c.E., Roads and Bridges Branch, Public Works Department. ; Darley, Cecil West, M. mst.c.z, c/o The Agent General, West- minster Chambers, 9 Victoria-street, London, S.W. Darley, The Hon. Sir Frederick, kK c.m.c., B.A., Chief Justice, Supreme Court. David, T. W. Edgeworth, B.A.,F.R.S.,F.G.S., Professor of Geology and Physical Geography, Sydney University, Glebe. Vice- President. Davis, Joseph, M.tst.ceu, Under Secretary, Department of Public Works. Dean, Alexander, j.p. 42 Castlereagh-street, Box 409 G.P.O. Deane, Henry, ™.4., M. Inst. c.E., Engineer-in-Chief for Railways, Railway Construction Branch, Public Works Department, p.r. ‘Blanerne,’ Wybalena Road, Hunter’s Hill. Vice- President. Deck, John Feild, m.p Univ. St. And., u.R.c.p. Lond., M.R.C.S., Eng., 203 Macquarie-street ; p.r. Ashfield. De Coque, J. V., Public Works Department, Sydney. Dick, James Adam, B.A. Syd., M.D., o.m. Edin., ‘Catfoss,’ Belmore Road, Randwick. Dixon, W. A., F.c.s., Fellow of the Institute of Chemistry of Great Britain and Ireland. 97 Pitt-street. Dixson, Thomas, u.z. Edin., Mast. Surg Edin., 281 Elizabeth- street, Hyde Park. Docker, Wilfred L., ‘ Nyrambla,’ Darlinghurst Road. (xiv. ) Elected 1876 Docker, Ernest B., u.a. Syd., District Court Judge, ‘ Eltham,” Edgecliffe Road. 1889 Duckworth, A., A.M.P. Society, 87 Pitt-st.; p.r. ‘ Trentham,” Woollahra. 1873 P1| Du Faur, E., F.x.c.s., Exchange Buildings, Pitt-street. 1894. Edgell, Robert Gordon, Roads and Bridges Office, Wollombi. 1896 Edwards, George Rixon, Resident Engineer, Roads and Bridges Branch, Crookwell. 1879 | P4| Etheridge, Robert, Junr., J.p., Curator, Australian Museum ;. p-r. 21 Roslyn-street, Darlinghurst. 1876 Evans, George, Fitz Evan Chambers, Castlereagh-street. 1892 Everett, W. Frank, Roads and Bridges Office, Muswellbrook. 1896 Fairfax, Charles Burton, S. M. Herald Office, Hunter-street. 1877 {Fairfax, Edward Ross, S. M. Herald Office, Hunter-street. 1896 Fairfax, Geoffrey E., 8. M. Herald Office, Hunter-street. 1868 Fairfax, Sir James R., Knt., S. M. Herald Office, Hunter-st. 1887 Faithfull, R. L., m.p. New York (Coll. Phys. & Surg.) L.B.c.P., L.s.A. Lond., 18 Wylde-street. 1889 Farr, Joshua J., J.p., ‘Cora Lynn,’ Addison Rd., Marrickville. 1897 Fell, David, c.a.a., Public Accountant, Equitable Building,. George-street. 1881 Fiaschi, Thos., ™.D., M.ch., Univ. Pisa, 149 Macquarie-street. 1891 Firth, Thomas Rhodes, M. Inst. c.F., ‘Glenevin,’ Arncliffe. 1891 Fitzgerald, Robert D., c.z., Roads and Bridges Branch, Department of Public Works, Sydney; p.r. Alexandra-st.,. Hunter’s Hill. 1888 Fitzhardinge, Grantly Hyde, m.a. Syd., District Court Judge, ‘Red Hill,’ Beecroft, Northern Line. 1894 Fitz Nead, A. Churchill, Lands Department, Lismore. 1900 {Flashman, James Froude, m.v. Syd., ‘Totnes, Temple-street, Petersham. 1879 {Foreman, Joseph, m.R.c.s. Hng., u.B.c.P. Edin., 141 Macquarie- street. 1881 Foster, The Hon. W. J., x.c., ‘Thurnby,’ Enmore Road, Newtown. 1881 Furber, T. F., Surveyor General’s Office, p.r. ‘Tennyson House,” 145 Victoria-street. 1899 | P1| Garran, Hon. A., M.A., LL.D., M.L.C., ‘ Roanoke,’ Roslyn Avenue, Darlinghurst. 1899 Garran, R. R., M.a., c.u.a., Wigram Chambers, Phillip-street. 1876 George, W. R., 318 George-street. 1879 Gerard, Francis, ‘ Clandulla,’ Goulburn. 1896 Gibson, Frederick William, District Court, Judge ‘ Grasmere,” Stanmore Road. 1891 Gill, Robert J., Public Works Department, Moruya. 1876 | P 4! Gipps, F. B., c.u., ‘Elmly,’ Mordialloc, Victoria. Elected 1883 1859 1896 1897 1886 1891 1899 1898 1877 1891 1900 1880 1899 1892 1887 1882 1881 1877 1899 1884. 1899 1900 1890 1891 1900 1884 1899 1899 1891 1876 1896 1892 Pi Pl (xv.) Goode, W. H., ma., M.D., ch.M., Diplomate in State Medicine: Dub.; Surgeon Royal Navy; Corres. Mem. Royal Dublin Society; Mem. Brit. Med. Assoc.; Lecturer on Medical Jurisprudence, University of Sydney, 159 Macquarie-st. Goodlet, John H., ‘Canterbury House,’ Ashfield. Gollin, Walter J., ‘Winslow,’ Darling Point. Gould, Hon. Albert John, u.u.c¢., J.p., Holt’s Cambers, 121 Pitt-street; p.r. ‘Eynesbury,’ Edgecliff. Graham, Sir James, Knt., m.a., M.D., M.B., C.M. Hdin., M.L.A.,. Mayor of Sydney, 183 Liverpool-street. Grimshaw, James Walter, M. Inst.C.E., M. 1. Mech. E., &., Australian Club, Sydney. Gummow, Frank M., M.¢.E., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E,, Vickery’s Cham-- bers, 82 Pitt- street. Gurney, Elliott Henry, ‘ Glenavon,’ Albert- st, Petersham. Gurney, T. T., u.a. Cantab., Professor of Mathematics, Sydney University; prs Clavering,’ French’s Forest Road, Manly. Guthrie, Frederick B., ¥F.c.s., Department of Agriculture,. Sydney; p.r. ‘ Westella,’ Wonga-street, Burwood. Hadley, Arthur, F.c.s., Standard Brewery, Sydney. Halligan, Gerald H., r.a.s., ‘ Riversleigh,’ Hunter’s Hill. Halloran, A., B.A., LL B., 20 Castlereagh-street. Halloran, Henry Ferdinand, L.s., Scott’s Chambers, 94 Pitt-st.. Hamlet, William M., F.c.s., F.1.c., Member of the Society of Public Analysts; Government Analyst, Health Depart- ment, Macquarie-street North. Vice-President. Hankins, George Thomas, m.R.c.s. Eng., ‘St. Ronans,’ Allison Road, Randwick. tHarris, John, ‘ Bulwarra,’ Jones-street, Ultimo. P 18\{Hargrave, Lawrence, J.p., 44 Roslyn Gardens, City. Harper, H. W., Assoc. M, Inst.c.E, Equitable Building, George-st. Haswell, William Aitcheson, m.A., D.Sc, F.R.8., Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy, University, Sydney; p-r. ‘Mimihau,’ Woollahra Point. Hawker, Herbert, Demonstrator in Physiology, University of Sydney; p.r. 1 Northumberland Avenue, Petersham. Hawkins, W. E., Solicitor, 88 Pitt-street. Haycroft, James Isaac, m.z. Queen’s Univ. Irel., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E. Assoc, M. Can. Soc. C.E., Assoc. M, Am. Soc, C.E., M.M. & C.E., M. Inst. C.E. I., L.S. ‘ Fontenoy, Ocean-street, Woollahra. Hedley, Charles, F.u.s., Assistant in Zoology, Australian: Museum, Sydney. Helms, Richard, Experimentalist, Department of Agriculture. Henson, Joshua B., c.z., Hunter District Water Supply and Sewerage Board, Newcastle. Henderson, J., City Bank of Sydney, Pitt-street. Henderson, S., m.A., Assoc. M. Inst.c.E., Equitable Building, George- street. Hickson, Robert R. P., mM. Inst.c.c., Chairman, Harbour Trust, Sydney ; p.r. ‘The Pines,’ Bondi. Hirst, George D., 377 George-street. Hinder, Henry Critchley, u.B.,c.m. Syd., Elizabeth-st., Ashfield. Hodgson, Charles George, 157 Macquarie-street. Elected (xvi.) 1891 | P2| Houghton, Thos. Harry, M, Inst. C.E., M. I. Mech. E., 63 Pitt-street. 1879 1891 1877 1894: 1891 1900 1884 1887 Pt P2 1884. | 1867 1876 1875 1878 1883 1873 1877 1894 1887 1898 1892 1891 1874. 1896 1892 1878 1881 1877 1878 P2 P3 P13 ‘Houison, Andrew, 8.4., w.B., ¢.M. Edin., 47 Phillip-street. How, William F., m. mst.c.b., M. I. Mech. E, Wh. Sc, Mutual Life Buildings, George-street. Hume, J. K., ‘ Beulah, Campbelltown. Hunt, Henry A., F.R. Met. soc., Second Meteorological Assistant, Sydney Observatory. Jamieson, Sydney, B.A., M.B., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., 198 Liverpool- street, Hyde Park. ee Jarman, Arthur, a.x.s.m., Demonstrator, University of Sydney. Jenkins, Edward Johnstone, u.a., M.D. Oxon., M.R.C.P., M.B.C.S., L.s.A. Lond., 218 Macquarie-street, North. ’ Jones, George Mander, m.n.c.s. Eng., L.R.c.P. Lond., * Viwa,’ Burlington Road, Homebush. Jones, Llewellyn Charles Russell, Solicitor, Sydney Chambers, 130 Pitt-street. Jones, P. Sydney, u.p. Lond., F.R.c.s. Eng., 16 College-street, Hyde Park; p.r. ‘ Llandilo,’ BouJevard, Strathfield. Jones, Richard Theophilus, u.p. Syd., u.R.c.p. Hdin., ‘Cader Idris,’ Ashfield. Josephson, J. Percy, Assoc. M. Inst. c.E., ‘Moppity,’ George-street, Dulwich Hill. Joubert, Numa, Hunter’s Hill. Kater, The Hon. H. E., 3.p., u.ut.c., Australian Club. Keele, Thomas William, ™. Inst. c.E., Harbours and Rivers Branch Public Works Department. Keep, John, Broughton Hall, Leichhardt. Kelly, Walter MacDonnell, L.R.c.P., u.R.¢.8. Hdin., L.F.P.S. Glas., 265 Elizabeth-street. Kent, Harry C., u.a., Bell’s Chambers, 129 Pitt-street. Kerry, Charles H., J.p., 310 George-street. ; Kiddle, Hugh Charles, F. R. Met. Soc., Public School, Seven Oaks, Smithtown, Macleay River. King, Christopher Watkins, Assoc. M. Inst. CE, LS, Assistant Engineer, Harbours and Rivers Department, Newcastle. King, The Hon. Phillip G., u.u.c., ‘ Banksia,’ William-street, Double Bay. King, Kelso, 120 Pitt-street. Kirkcaldie, David, Commissioner, New South Wales Govern- ment Railways, Sydney. Knaggs, Samuel T., m.p. Aberdeen, ¥F.R.c.S. Irel., 5 Lyons’ Terrace, Hyde Park. Knibbs, G. H., r.n.a.s., Lecturer in Surveying, University of Sydney; p.r. ‘Avoca House,’ Denison Road, Petersham. Hon. Secretary. ’ Knox, Edward W., ‘Rona,’ Bellevue Hill, Rose Bay. Kyngdon, F. B., F.R.u.s., Lond., Deanery Cottage, Bowral. lected 1874 1883 1901 1872 |P 50 . 1894: 1900 1900 P6 (xvii.) Lenehan, Henry Alfred, r.nz.a.s., Sydney Observatory. Lingen, J. T., m.a. Cantab., 167 Phillip-street. Little, Robert, The Hermitage,’ Double Bay. Liversidge, Archibald, m.a. Cantab., LL.D., F.R.S., Hon. F.R.s. Edin.; Assoc. Roy. Sch. Mines, Lond.; F.C.S8., F.G.S., F.R.G.S.; Fel. Inst. Chem. of Gt. Brit. and Irel.; Hon. Fel. Roy. Historical Soc. Lond.; Mem. Phy. Soc., Lond.; Mineral- ogical Society, Lond; Edin. Geol. Soc.; Mineralogical Society, France; Corr. Mem. Edin. Geol. Soc.; New York Acad. of Sciences; Roy. Soc., Tas.; Roy. Soc., Queensland; Senckenberg Institute, Frankfurt ; Society d’ Acclimat., Mauritius; Foreign Corr. Indiana Acad. of Sciences; Hon. Mem. Roy. Soc., Vict.; N. Z. Institute; K. Leop. Carol. Acad., Halle a/s; Professor of Chemistry in the University of Sydney, The University, Glebe; p.r. ‘The Octagon,’ St. Mark’s Road, Darling Point. President. Low, Hamilton, ‘ Lillington,’ Cambridge-street, Stanmore. MacCarthy, Charles W., m.p., F.R.c.S. Ivel.; 223 Elizabeth- street, Hyde Park. MacCormick, Alexander, m.D., ¢.m. Edin., M.R.c.s. Eng., 125 Macquarie-street, North. MacCulloch, Stanhope H., u.s., c.m. Hdin., 24 College-street. M‘Cutcheon, John Warner, Assayer to the Sydney Branch of the Royal Mint. McDonagh, John M., B.A, M.D., u.R.c.P. Lond., F.R.C.S. frel., 173 Macquarie-street. North. MacDonald, C. A., c.£., 63 Pitt-street. , MacDonald, Ebenezer, 3.P., c/o Perpetual Trustee Co. Ld., 2 Spring-street. MacDonnell, William J., F.n.a.s., 1!44 Pitt-street. McDouall, Herbert Chrichton, m.r.c.s. Eng., t.R.c Pp. Lond., D.e.H. Camb., Hospital for Insane, Callan Park, Rozelle. McKay, G. A., Chief Mining Surveyor, Department of Mines, Sydney. McKay, R. T., t.s., Sewerage Construction Branch, Public Works Department. McKay, William J. Stewart, B.Sc. M.B., Ch.M., Cambridge-street, Stanmore. Mackellar, The Hon. Charles Kinnaird, M.L.c., M.B., c.M. Glas., Equitable Building, George-street. Mackenzie, Rev. P. F., The Manse, Johnston-st., Annandale. M‘Kinney, Hugh Giffin, u.z. Roy. Univ. Irel., m. mst. c.£., § Dilk- husha,’ Fuller’s Road, Chatswood, MacLaurin, The Hon. Henry Norman, M.L.¢., M.A.. M.D. Edin., L.R.C.8. Hdin., LL.D. Univ. St. Andrews, 155 Macquarie-st. McMillan, Sir William, ‘ Logan Brae,’ Waverley. MacTaggart, A. H, p.p.s., Phil. U.S.A., King and Phillip-sts. MacTaggart, J. N. C., B.z. Syd., 16 Lugar-street, Waverley. 1882 | P1| Madsen, Hans. F., ‘ Hesselmed House,’ Queen-st., Newtown. 1883 | P6| Maiden, J. Henry, s.p., F.u.s, Corr. Memb. Pharm. Soc. Gt. Brit.; of the National Agric. Soc., Chili; Hon. Memb. Royal Netherlands Soc. (Haarlem); of the Philadelphia Coll. of Pharmacy; of the Royal Soc. of 8.A.; of the Mueller Botanic Soc. of W.A.&c.; Government Botanist and Director, Botanic Gardens, Sydney. Hon. Secretary. Elected 1880 1877 1879 1869 1897 1875 1888 1896 1887 1873 1882 1889 1856 1879 1875 1877 1882 1877 1879 1887 1898 1876 1893 1891 1873 1893 1888 1896 1875 (xviil.) P1| Manfred, Edmund C., Montague-street, Goulburn. P 10 P5 P3 Pry Pet Mann, John F., ‘Kerepunu,’ Neutral Bay. Manning, Frederic Norton, u.p. Univ. St. And., M.R.¢.s. Eng., L.s.A. Lond., Australian Club. Mansfield, G. Allen, Martin Chambers, Moore-street. Marden, John, B.A., M.A., LL.B., Univ. Melb., uu.p. Univ. Syd., Principal, Presbyterian Ladies’ College, Sydney. Mathews, Robert Hamilton, L.s., Assoc. Mem. Soc. d’Anthrop. de Paris; Cor. Mem. Anthrop. Soc., Washington, U.S.A.; Cor. Mem, Roy. Geog. Soc. Aust., Queensland ; ‘ Carcuron,’ Hassall-street, Parramatta. 39 Megginson, A. M., m.B., c.m. Edin,, 147 Hlizabeth-street. Merfield, Charles J., F.R.A.s., Railway Construction Branch,. Public Works Department; p.r. ‘ Branville,’ Green Bank- street, Marrickville. Miles, George E., u.x.c.P. Lond, M.x.c.8s. Eng., The Hospital, Rydalmere, Near Parramatta. Milford, F., m.p. Heidelberg, u.R.¢.S. Eng., 231 Elizabeth-st. Milson, James, ‘ Elamang,’ North Shore. Mingaye, John C. H., F.c.s., F.1.c., Assayer and Analyst to the Department of Mines, Government Metallurgical Works, Clyde; p.r. Campbell-street, Parramatta. Moore, Charles, r.us., Australian Club; p.r. 6 Queen-street, Woollahra. Vice-President. Moore, Frederick H., Illawarra Coal Co., Gresham-street. Moir, James, 58 Margaret-street. Morris, William, Fel. Fac. Phys. and Surg. Glas., F.R.M.s. Lond., c/o Mrs. C. H. Humphrey, ‘Luscombe,’ Livingstone-- street, Burwood. Moss, Sydney, ‘ Kaloola,’ Kiribilli Point, North Shore. tMullens, Josiah, F.r.a.s., ‘Tenilba,’ Burwood. Mullins, John Francis Lane, u.a. Syd,, ‘ Killountan,’ Challis. Avenue, Pott’s Point. Munro, William John, M.B., c.mM., M.D. Edin., u.R.c.s. Eng., 213 Macquarie-street; p.r. Forest House, 182 Pyrmont Bridge Road, Forest Lodge. Murray, Lee, u.c.£. Melb., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., 16 O’Connell-street. Myles, Charles Henry, ‘ Dingadee,’ Burwood. Nangle, James, Architect, Australia-street, Newtown. tNoble, Edwald George, 21 Norfolk-street, Paddington. Norton, The Hon. James, M.L.c., LL.D, Solicitor, 2 O’Connell-. street; p.r. ‘ Ecclesbourne,’ Double Bay. Noyes, Edward, c..,c/o Messrs. Noyes Bros., 310 O’Connell-st.. O’Neill, G. Lamb, m.B., c.m. Edin., 221 Elizabeth-street. Onslow, Lt. Col. James William Macarthur, Camden Park,, Menangle. O’Reilly, W. W. J., M.D., M.ch. Q. Univ. Irel., m.n.c.s. Eng., 197 Liverpool-street. Elected 1883 | 1891 | 1879 | P5 1897/P1 1876 1899 | Pl 1900 | 1865 | P1 { 1881 | P3 a 1870 | 1893 | P1 1885, 1897. (xix.) | Osborne, Ben. M., J.P., ‘ Hopewood,’ Bowral. ‘Osborn, A F., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., Public Works Department, Cowra. Palmer, Joseph, 133 Pitt-st.; p.r. Kenneth-st., Willoughby. Paterson, Hugh, 197 Liverpool-street, Hyde Park. Pearce, W., Union Club; p.r. ‘Waiwera,’ Cecil-st., Ashfield. Pedley, Perceval R., 227 Macquarie-street. | Perkins, E. W., 122 Pitt-street. Perkins, Henry A., c/o Perpetual Trustee Co. Ld., 2 Spring-st. Petersen, T. T., Associate Sydney Institute of Public Account- ants, 85 Womerah Avenue. Pickburn, Thomas, m.pD., c.m. Aberdeen, m.R.c.s. Eng., 22 College-street. Pittman, Edward F., Assoc. RS.M. LS. Government Geologist, Department of Mines. Plummer, John, Northwood, Lane Cove River. Poate, Frederick, District Surveyor, Moree. Pockley, Thomas F. G., Commercial Bank, Singleton. Pollock, James Arthur, B.E. Roy. Univ. Ivrel, Bsc, Syd., Pro- fessor of Physics, Sydney University. Poole, William Junr., Assoc. M. Inst.C.E, 87 Pitt-street, Redfern, or Palace Hotel, Broken Hill. Pope, Roland James, B.A. Syd., M.D., C.M., F.R.C.S. Edin., Ophthalmic Surgeon, 235 Macquarie-street. Portus, A. B., Assoc. M.Inst.C.E, Superintendent of Dredges, Public Works Department. Purser, Cecil, B.A. M.B, Ch.M. Syd., ‘Valdemar,’ Boulevard, Petersham. Quaife, Frederick H., m.a, m.p., Master of Snrgery Glas., ‘ Hughenden,’ 14 Queen-street, Woollahra. Rae, J. L. C., Manager Sydney Harbour Collieries Ltd.; p.r. ‘Strathmore,’ Ewenton-street, Balmain. Ralston, J. T., Solicitor, 86 Pitt-street. tRamsay, Edward P., uu.p. Univ. St. And., F.R.s.E., F.L.S., 8 Palace-street, Petersham. Rennie, Edward H., m.a. Syd., D. Se. Lond., Professor of Chemistry, University, Adelaide. Rennie, George E., B.A. Syd., M.D. Lond., m.R.c.s. Eng., 40 College-street, Hyde Park. Renwick, The Hon. Sir Arthur, Knt., m.u.c., B.a. Syd., m.a., F.R.C.8. Edin., 295 Elizabeth-street. Roberts, W. S. de Lisle, c.z., Sewerage Branch, Public Works Department, Phillip-street. Rolleston, John C., Assoc, M. Inst. C.E., Harbours and Rivers Branch, Public Works Department. Ronaldson, James Henry, Mining Engineer, 32 Macleay-st., Pott’s Point. Elected 1892 1884, 1895 1895 1882 1894 1864: 1897 1883 1892 1892 1856 1886 1877 1890 1891 1883 1900 1882 1893 1884. 1891 1893 1874 1875 1899 1898 1886 PP tl P 65 as] = P 4 Pal P3 (xx.) Rossbach, William, Assoc. M. Inst.C.E, Chief Draftsman, Harbours and Rivers Branch, Public Works Department. Ross, Chisholm, mu.p. Syd., M.B., c.m. Edin., Hospital for the Insane, Callan Park, Rozelle. Ross, Colin John, B.Sc., B.E., Assoc. M. Inst, C.£., Borough Engineer, Town Hall, North ‘Sydney. Ross, Herbert E., Consulting Mining Engineer, Equitable Buildings, George-street. Rothe, W. H., Colonial Sugar Co., O’Connell-st., and Union Club Rowney, George Henry, Assoc. M. Inst.C.E.,, Water and Sewerage Board, Pitt-street; p.r. ‘Maryville, Ben Boyd Road, Neutral Bay. Russell, Henry C., B.a. Syd., C M.G., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.R. Met. Soc., Hon. Memb. Roy. Soc., South Australia, Government Astronomer, Sydney Observatory. Russell, Harry Ambrose, B.A., Solicitor, c/o Messrs. Sly and Russell, 379b George-street; p.r. ‘Mahuru,’ Milton-street, Ashfield. Rygate, Philip W., m.a., B.E. Syd., Assoc. M, Inst. C.E., Phoenix Chambers, 158 Pitt- street. Schmidlin, F,, 44 Elizabeth-street, Sydney. Schofield, James Alexander, F ¢.s., A.R.S.M., University, Sydney. tScott, Rev. William, m.a. Cantab., Kurrajong Heights. Scott, Walter, m.a. Oxon., Professor of Greek, University, Sydney. Selfe, Norman, M. Inst. C.E., M.I. Mech. E., Victoria Chambers, 279 George-street. Sellors, R. P., B.a. Syd., FR.A.S., Trigonometrical Branch, Lands Department. Shaw, Percy William, Assoc. M. Inst.C.E., Resident Engineer for Tramway Construction; p.r. ‘Epcombs,’ Miller-street, North Sydney. Shellshear, Walter, M. Inst.C,e., Divisional Engineer, Railway Department, Goulburn. Simpson, R. C., Demonstrator of Physics, Sydney University. Sinclair, Eric, m.p., c.m. Univ. Glas., Hospital for the Insane, Gladesville. | Sinclair, Russell, M. I. Mech. E. &. Consulting Engineer, 97 Pitt-st. Skirving, Robert Scot, u.s.. c.m. Hdin., HElizabeth-street, Hyde Park. Smail, J. M., M.Inst.C.E,, Chief Engineer, Metropolitan Board of Water Supply and Sewerage, 341 Pitt-street. Smith, Henry G., r.c.s., Technological Museum, Sydney. ‘fSmith, John McGarvie, 89 Denison-street, Woollahra. | Smith, Robert, m.a. Syd., Marlborough Chambers, 2 O’Connell street. Smith, R. Greig, MSc. Dun., B.Sc. Edin., Macleay Bacteriologist, ‘Otterburn,’ Double Bay. Smith, S. Hague, Colonial Mutual Fire Insurance Co., 78 Pitt-st. Smith, Walter Alexander, M. Inst. C.E., Roads, Bridges and Sewerage Branch, Public Works Department, N. Sydney. Elected 1896 1896 1892 1889 1879 1891 1900 1883 1892 1861 |P 19 (xxi. ) | Smyth, Selwood, Harbours and Rivers Branch, Public Works Department. Spencer, Walter, m.p. Bruz., 13 Edgeware Road, Enmore. P1| Statham, Edwyn Joseph, Assoc. M. Inst,C.E, Cumberland Heights, Parramatta. Stephen, Arthur Winbourn, 1 s., 86 Pitt-street. tStephen, The Hon. Septimus A., m.u.c., 12—14 O’Connell-st. Stilwell, A. W., Assoc. M.Inst.C.f., Public Works Depart., Sydney. Stewart, J. D., u.R.c.v.s., Government Veterinary Surgeon, Department of Mines and Agriculture; p.r. Cowper-street, Randwick. P3) Stuart, T. P. Anderson, u.p., Lu.p. Univ. Edin., Professor of P2 PS | 2a | Physiology, University of Sydney; p.r. ‘ Lincluden,’ Fairfax Road, Double Bay. Sturt, Clifton, L.R.c.P., L.R.c.S. Edin., u.F.P.s. Glas., ‘ Wistaria,’ Bulli. tTaylor, James, B.Sc, A.R.S.Mm., Adderton Road, Dundas. Teece, R., F.1.4., F.F.A., Actuary, A.M.P. Society, 87 Pitt-st. Tebbutt, John, F.k.A.s., Private Observatory, The Peninsula, Windsor, New South Wales. Thom, James Campbell, Solicitor for Railways; p.r. ‘ Camelot,’ Forest Road, Bexley. Thom, John Stuart, Solicitor, Atheneum Chambers, 11 Castle- reagh-street; p.r. Wollongong Road, Arncliffe. Thomas, F. J., Hunter River N.S.N. Co., Sussex-street. Thomson, Dugald, u.u.a., ‘ Wyreepi,’ Milson’s Point. Thompson, Joseph, 159 Brougham-street, Woolloomooloo. Thompson, John Ashburton, M.D. Bruz., D.Pp.H. Camb., M R.C.S, fing., Health Department, Macquarie-street. Thompson, Capt. A. J. Onslow, Camden Park, Menangle Thow, Sydney, Genera) Manager, The Hercules Gold and Silver Mining Co., Mount Read, 'Tasmania. Thow, William, M.Inst.C.E., M.I.Mech.E., Locomotive Department, Eveleigh. Threlfall, Richard, m.a. Cantab. Thring, Edward T., F.R.¢c.s. Eng., u.R.c.P. Lond., 225 Macquarie- street. | Tibbits, Walter Hugh, m.c.s. Eng., Dubbo. Tidswell, Frank, M.B., M.Ch., D.P.H., Health Department, Sydney. Toohey, The Hon. J. T., m.u.c., ‘ Moira,’ Burwood. Tooth, Arthur W., Kent Brewery. Trebeck, Prosper N., J.p., 2 O’Connell-street. Trebeck, P. C., F.R. Met. Soc., 2 O’Connell-street. tTucker, G. A., c/o Perpetual Trustee Co. Ld., 2 Spring-street. Turner, Basil W., A.R.S.M., F.c.s., 14 Castlereagh-street. Vause, Arthur John, m.8.,c.m. Edin.,‘ Bay View House,’ Tempe. Verde, Capitaine Felice, Ing. Cav., vid Fazio 2, Spezia, Italy. Verdon, Arthur, Australian Club. Vicars, James, M.C.E, M. Inst, C.E., City Surveyor, Adelaide. Elected 1892 1876 1898 1879 1899 1900 1891 1896 1895 1898 1877 1883 1876 1876 1897 1866 1892 1867 1881 1878 1879 1892 1877 1874 1883 1876 1878 1879 1891 1890 1873 1891 1899 rey til (xxii.) Vickery, George B., 78 Pitt-street. Voss, Houlton H., J.p., c/o Perpetual Trustee Company Ld., 2 Spring-street. Wade, Leslie A. B., c.z., Department of Public Works. Walker, H. O., Commercial Union Assurance Co., Pitt-street. tWalker, J. T., ‘ Rosemont,’ Ocean-street, Woollahra. “Wallach, Bernhard, B.E. Syd., Electrical Engineer, 53 Boyce- street, Glebe Point. Walsh, Henry Deane, B.E., T.c. Dub., M. Inst.C.E., Engineer-in- Chief, Harbour Trust, Sydney. Walsh, C. R., Prothonotary, Supreme Court. Ward, James Wenman, 1 Union Lane off George-street. Wark, William, 9 Macquarie Place; p.r. Kurrajong Heights. Warren, William Edward, B.A.,M.D.,M.Ch, Queen’s University Trel., M.D. Syd., 268 Elizabeth-street, Sydney. Warren, W. H., Wh. Sc. M.Inst.C.E. Professor of Engine University of Sydney. Watkins, John Leo, B.a. Cantab., m.a. Syd., Parlin oni Draftsman, Attorney General’s Department, 5 Richmond Terrace, Domain. Watson, C. Russell, u.R.c.s. Eng., ‘Woodbine,’ Erskineville Road, Newtown. Webb, Fredk. William, c.m.c., J.p., Clerk of the Legislative Assembly; pr. ‘ Livadia,’ Chandos-street, Ashfield. jWebster, A. S., c/o Permanent Trustee Co. of N.S. Wales Ld., 17 O’Connell-street. Webster, James Philip, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E, L.8. New Zealand, Borough Engineer, Town Hall, Marrickville. Weigall, Albert “Bythesea, B A. Oxon., M.A. Syd., Head i Sydney Grammar School, College- street. tWesley, W. H. Westgarth, G. C., Bond-street; p.r. 52 Elizabeth Bay Road. tWhitfeld, Lewis, m.a. Syd., ‘Oaklands,’ Edgecliffe Road, Edgecliffe. White, ae aes Assistant Assayer and Analyst, Dept. of Mines; ‘Quantox,’ Park Road, Auburn. tWhite, Rev. We “Mosee, A.M., LL.D., T.C.D: “White, Rev. James S., M.A., LL.D. Syd., ‘Gowrie,’ Singleton. Wilkinson, W. Gama m.D. Lond., u.R.c.P. Lond., M.R.¢.8s. Eng., 207 Macquarie-street. Williams, Percy Edward, Government Savings Bank, Sydney. Wilshire, James Thompsoa, F.L.S., F.R.H.S., J.P., ‘Coolooli,’ off Ranger’s Road, Shell Cove, Neutral Bay. Wilshire, F. R., p.m., Penrith. Wilson, Robert Archibald, m.p. Glas., Mast. Surg. Glas., 2 Booth-street, Balmain. Wilson, James T., u.s., Mast. Surg. Univ. Edin., Professor of Anatomy, University of Sydney. Wood, Harrie, J.p., 10 Bligh-street; p.r. 54 Darlinghurst Road. Wood, Percy Moore, u.R.c.P. Lond., M.R.c.8. Eng., ‘ Redcliffe,” Liverpool Road, Ashfield. Woolnough, W. G., B.Sc. Demonstrator in Geology, Sydney University. Elected xxiii.) 1876 | P11] Woolrych, F. B. W., ‘ Verner,’ Grosvenor-street, Croydon. 1872 1893 1879 1878 1875 1900 1875 1887 1875 (1875 1880 1892 1888 1894 1888 1900 1895 1886 1875 1875 1890 1879 1882 1882 1888 1898 Wright, Horatio G. A., m.R.c.s. Eng., u.s.a. Lond., 15 York-st., Wynyard Square. Hon. Treasurer. Wright, John, c.z., Toxteth-street, Glebe Point. Young, John, ‘ Kentville,’ Johnston-street, Leichhardt. Honorary MEMBERS. Limited to Thirty. M.—Recipients of the Clarke Medal. Agnew, Sir James, K.c.M.G., M.D., Royal Society of Tasmania, Hobart. Bernays, Lewis A., ¢.u.G., F.L.S., Brisbane. Crookes, Sir William, F.r.s., 7 Kensington Park Gardens, London W. Ellery, Robert L. J., F.B.8., F.R.A.S., late Government Astrono- mer of Victoria, ‘Melbourne. Foster, Sir Michael, M.pD., F.R.S., EEO: of Physiology, University of Cambridge. Gregory, The Hon. Augustus Charles, ¢.M.G., M.L.C., F.R.G.S., Brisbane. Hector, Sir James, K.C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S., Director of the Colonial Museum and Geological Survey of New Zealand, Wellington, N.Z. Hooker, Sir Joseph Dalton, K.c.S.1., M.D., C.B., F.R.S., &e. .» late Director of the Royal Gardens, Kew. Huggins, Sir William, K.c.B., D.C.L., LL.D., F.B.S., &¢., 90 Upper Tulse Hill, London, S.W. Hutton, Captain Frederick Wollaston, F.a.s., Curator, Canter- ’ bury Museum, Christchurch, New Zealand. Spencer, W. Baldwin, m.a., Professor of Biology, University of Melbourne. Tate, Ralph, F.a.s., F.L.S., Professor of Natural Science, University, Adelaide, South Australia. Thiselton-Dyer, Sir William ‘Turner, K.C.M.G., C.I.E., M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S., F.u.S., Director, Royal Gardens, Kew. Wallace, Alfred Russel, p.c.t. Oxon., Lu.D. Dublin, F.R.S., Parkstone, Dorset. OBITUARY. 1900. Corresponding Member. Marcou, Professor Jules. [Died 17 April, 1898. | Ordinary Members. Belisario, Dr. John. Knox, Sir Edward. Neill, Dr. L. E. F. Shepard, A. D. Shewen, Dr. Alfred. Steel, Dr. John, White, Hon. R. H. D. Wildridge, John. (xxiv.) AWARDS OF THE CLARKE MEDAL. Established in memory of THE LATE Revo. W. B. CLARKE, m.a., F.R.s., F.G.8s., &C., Vice-President from 1866 to 1878. To be awarded from time to time for meritorious contributions to the Geology, Mineralogy, or Natural History of Australia. 1878 Professor Sir Richard Owen. k.c.B., F.R.S., Hampton Court. 1879 George Bentham, c.m.G., F.R.s., The Royal Gardens, Kew. 1880 Professor Huxley, r.R.s., The Royal School of Mines, London, 4 Marlborough Place, Abbey Road, N.W. 1881 Professor F. M‘Coy, F.R.s., F.a.s., The University of Melbourne. 1882 Professor James Dwight Dana, tu.p., Yale College, New Haven, Conn., United States of America. 1883 Baron Ferdinand von Mueller, K.c.M.G , M.D., PH.D., F.R.S., F.L.S8.> Government Botanist, Melbourne. 1884 Alfred R. C. Selwyn, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Director of the Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa. 1885 Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker, k.c.s.1., ¢.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., &¢., late Director of the Royal Gardens, Kew. 1886 Professor L. G. De Koninck, u.p., University of Liége, Belgium. 1887 Sir James Hector, K.c.u.G., M.D,, F.R.S., Director of the Geological Survey of New Zealand, Wellington, N.Z. 1888 Rev. Julian H. Tenison-Woods, F.a.s., F.L.s., Sydney. 1889 Robert Lewis John Ellery, F.R.s., F.R.A.s., Government Astrono- mer of Victoria, Melbourne. 1890 George Bennett, u.p. Univ. Glas., ¥.R.c.s. Eng., F.L.S., F.Z.8., William j Street, Sydney. 1891 Captain Frederick Wollaston Hutton, F.R.s., r.a.s., Curator, Can- terbury Museum, Christchurch, New Zealand. ~ ~ 1892 Sir William Turner Thiselton Dyer, K.c.M.G.,C.1.E.,M.A., B.S¢., F.R.S.5 F.L.S., Director, Royal Gardens, Kew. 1893 Professor Ralph Tate, F.u.s., F.a4.s., University, Adelaide, S.A. 1895 Robert Logan Jack, F.G.s., F.R.G.S.,Government Geologist, Brisbane, Queensland. 1895 Robert Etheridge, Junr., Government Paleontologist, Curator of the Austrahan Museum, Sydney. 1896 Hon. Augustus Charles Gregory, ¢.M.G., M.L.C., F.R.G.S., Brisbane. 1900 Sir John Murray, Challenger Lodge, Wardie, Edinburgh. AWARDS OF THE SOCIETY’S MEDAL AND MONEY PRIZE. The Royal Society of New South Wales offers its Medal and Money Prize for the best communication (provided it be of sufficient merit) containing the results of original research or observation upon various subjects published annually. Money Prize of £25. 1882 John Fraser, B.a., West Maitland, for paper on ‘ The Aborigines of New South Wales.’ 1882 Andrew Ross, m.p., Molong, for paper on the ‘ Influence of the Australian climate and pastures upon the growth of wool.’ 1884 1886 1887 1888 1889 1889 1891 1892 1894 1894 1895 1896 (xxv) The Society’s Bronze Medal and £25. W. E. Abbott, Wingen, for paper on ‘ Water supply in the Interior of New South Wales.’ S. H. Cox, F.a.s., F.c.s., Sydney, for paper on ‘The Tin deposits of New South Wales. Jonathan Seaver, F.a.s., Sydney, for paper on ‘ Origin and mode of occurrence of gold-bearing veins and of the associated Minerals. Rev. J. E. Tenison- Woods, F.a.s., F.L.S., Sydney, for paper on ‘ The Anatomy and Life-history of Mollusca peculiar to Australia.’ Thomas Whitelegge, F.R.m.s., Syduey, for ‘ List of the Marine and Fresh-water Invertebrate Fauna of Port Jackson and Neigh- bourhood. Rev. John Mathew, m.a., Coburg, Victoria, for paper on ‘The Australian Aborigines. Rev. J. Milne Curran. F.G.s., Sydney, for paper on ‘The Microscopic Structure of Australian Rocks.’ Alexander G. Hamilton, Public School, Mount Kembla, for paper on ‘The effect which settlement in Australia has produced upon Indigenous Vegetation.’ J. V. De Coque, Sydney, for paper on the ‘ Timbers of New South Wales.’ R. H. Mathews, t.s., Parramatta, for paper on ‘The Aboriginal Rock Carvings and Paintings in New South Wales. C. J. Martin, Bsc, MB. Lond, Sydney, for paper on ‘The physio- logical action of the venom of the Australian black snake (Pseudechis porphyriacus). Rev. J. Milne Curran, Sydney, for paper on “ The occurrence of Precious Stones in New South Wales, with a description of the Deposits in which they are found.” ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. By Witui1am M. HAMLET, F.1.C., F.C.S., Government Analyst. [ Delivered to the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, May 2, 1900. } “The fragmentary produce of much toil, In a dim heap, fact and surmise together Confusedly massed as when acquired. Paracelsus. The conception of the world, as a great kosmos or order, is the primary condition of human progress. In the industrial arts, in the rules of health, the methods of healing, the prepara- tion of food, in morals, in politics every advance is an application of past experience to new circumstances, in accordance with an observed order of Nature. Philosophy consists in the conscious recognition of this method, and in the systematic use of it for the complete guidance of life. Hierokles. The honour you conferred upon me in electing me as your President, brings with it its own obligations and the consciousness of the inadequacy of any efforts of mine to fulfil them in a manner worthy of the Royal Society. There comes also the important question as to what rightly constitutes the subject-matter of the Presidential Address: whether it should be a retrospect of the scientific work of the year, an announcement of something new in science, a history of science brought to date, a discussion of some “burning question” or merely a dissertation on some particular subject passing in the mind of the President. At the outset I frankly confess my inability to satisfy you with some of these good things, and I fall back upon the latter course and proceed to unburden myself of some thoughts that have come, unbidden perhaps, to my mind during the year. Obviously the doings of the Society during the period demands first attention, therefore, in common with the A—May 2, 1900. — practice of my predecessors, I address you on the status and con- 2 WILLIAM M. HAMLET. dition of the Society, and afterwards discuss certain topics that I think will not be without interest to you. Roll of members.—The number of members on the roll on the 30th April, 1899, was three hundred and fifty-seven. Thirty-two new members have been elected during the past year and four names restored to the roll, we have however lost by death six ordinary and two Honorary members, and thirteen by resignation. There is thus left a total of three hundred and seventy-four on April 30th, 1900. Obituary.—The following is a list of members who have died during the year 1899 :— | Honorary Members - Elected 1895, Bunsen, Professor Robert Wilhelm. 1875, M’Coy, Sir Frederick. Ordinary Members. — 1886, Collingwood, Dr. David. 1896, Elwell, P. B. 1887, MacAllister, Dr. J. F. 1878, Maitland, Duncan Mearns. 1859, Watt, Charles. 1878, Wilkinson, Rev. S. Mr. CHartes Watt left England in the Sydney in 1854—the first steamer that started for Australia, but after several attempts in commencing the voyage, put back and eventually came out in a sailing ship. On his arrival in the mother colony, he became interested in the manufacture of soap and candles, and afterwards, in the distillation of the shales found at Hartley Vale, on the Blue Mountains. In the absence of Professor Smith, he lectured for some time on Chemistry at the Sydney University. He practised as an Analyst in Sydney from 1870, and during the administration of Sir John Robertson he was appointed Government Analyst, a chemical laboratory being built for him on the site now occupied by the Department of Public. Health, but ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 3 his official connection with the Government dated back to the year 1875. Mr. Watt died at Parramatta on the 19th July, 1899. Papers read in 1899.—Dnuring the past year the Society held eight meetings, at which the average attendance of members was 39, and of visitors 3, the following nineteen papers were read :— L. 2, ade it. President’s Address, by G. H. Knibbs, F.R.4.s. Key to Tribes and Genera of the Floridez (Red or Purple Marine Algz), by Richard A. Bastow. (Communicated by J. H. Maiden, F.L.s.). . On the metamorphosis of the young form of /ilaria Bancrofti, Cobb, [Filaria sanguinis hominis, Lewis ; Pilaria nocturna, Manson] in the body of Culex ciliaris, Linn., the “ House Mosquito of Australia,” by T. L. Bancroft, m.s. . Suggestions for depicting diagrammatically the character of Seasons, as regards Rainfall, and especially that of Droughts, by H. Deane, M.A., M.Inst. C.E., &e. . Observations on the determination of Drought-intensity, by G. H. Knibbs, F.r.4.s., Lecturer in Surveying, University of Sydney. . On the crystalline camphor of Eucalyptus Oil (Eudesmol), and the natural formation of EKucalyptol, by Henry G. Smith, F.c.S., Technological Museum, Sydney. . Divisions of some Aboriginal Tribes, Queensland, by R. H. Matthews, L.s. . The Initiation Ceremonies of the Aborigines of Port Stephens, N.S. Wales, by W. J. Enright, B.a. (Communicated by R. H. Matthews, L.s.). ; . Sailing Birds are dependent on Wave-power, by L. Hargrave. 10. Some applications and developments of the Prismoidal Formula, by G. H. Knibbs, F.r.a.s., Lecturer in Surveying, University of Sydney. Current Papers, No. 4, by H. ©. Russell, Ba., o.M.G., F.R.S. ™" 12. Discovery of Glaciated Boulders at base of Permo- Carboniferous System, Lochinvar, N.S. Wales, by Professor T. W. E. David, B.A., F.G.8s. 13. On N. 8. Wales Copper Ores Containing Iodine, by Arthur Dieseldorff, m.z., Freiberg, Baden, Germany. (Communicated by A. J. Bensusan, Assoc. R.S.M., F.C.S.). 14. On the Darwinias of Port Jackson and their Essentials Oils, by R. T. Baker, F.u.s., Curator, and H. G. Smith, r.cs., Assistant Curator, Technological Museum, Sydney. 15. Orbit Elements Comet I., 1899 (Swift), by C.J. Merfield, F.R.A.s. 4 WILLIAM M. HAMLET. 16. On the composition of N.S. Wales Labradorite and Topazes with a comparison of methods for the estimation of Fluorine, by G. Harker, B.Sc. (Communicated by Professor Liversidge, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.) 17. On a remarkable increase of temperature after dark at Seven Oaks, Macleay River, by Hugh Charles Kiddle, F.R. Met. Soe., . Public School, Seven Oaks, Macleay River. 18. Record of rock temperatures at Sydney Harbour Colliery, Birthday Shaft, Balmain, Sydney, N. S. Wales, by J. L. C. Rae, E. F. Pittman, Assoc. R.S.M.and Professor T. W. E. David, B.A., F.G.S. 19. Note on Edible Earth from Fiji, by the Hon. B. G. Corney, M.D., Professor T. W. E. David, B.a., F.G.s., and F. B. Guthrie, F.c.s. Sectional Meetings.—The Engineering Section held seven meetings, at which the average attendance of members and vistors was 27 ; the following papers were read and discussed :— 1. The Annual Address to the Engineering Section, by Norman Selfe, M. Inst. €.E. 2. The Sewerage Systems of North Sydney and Double Bay, by J. Davis, M. Inst. C.E. 3. The Manufacture of Monier Pipes, by F. M. Gummow. 4. Lecture on Liquid Air, by Professor Liversidge, M.A., LL.D., F.R.8. 5. “Le Pont Vierendeel,” by J. I. Haycroft, M. inst. C.E.1. ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 5 The Medical Section held four meetings at which numerous exhibits were shown, and the following papers were read and discussed :— 1. An outbreak of Dermatitis exfoliativa neonatorum, by Dr. Walter Spencer. 2. Bubonic Plague in 1141 B.C., by Frank Tidswell, u.p., and J. Adam Dick, m.p. 3. The Water Supply and Sewerage Systems of Sydney, by J. M. Smail, M. Inst. C.E. Financial Position.—The Hon. Treasurer’s Financial Statement shows that a further sum of £150 has been repaid to the Clarke Memorial Fund, and a balance of £36 14s. 5d. carried forward. LInbrary.—The amount expended on the Library during the past year was £128 15s. 6d., viz, £126 9s. 6d. for books and periodicals, and £2 6s. for binding. Amongst other works pur- chased were the collective indexes to the Transactions and Abstracts of the Chemical Society, London, from 1841 to 1892. The want of more shelving accommodation for the books is badly felt. Exchanges.—Last year we exchanged our Journal with four hundred and fourteen kindred Societies, receiving in return two hundred and thirty-eight volumes, one thousand seven hundred and forty parts, one hundred and fifty-eight reports, one hundred and eighty-nine pamphlets. one framed photo, twenty-four mounted photos, fifteen meteorological charts, two maps, one atlas each hydrographic, and geological charts, a total of two thousand three hundred and sixty-nine publications. The follow- ing institutions have been added to the exchange list :— Naturhistorische Gesellschaft, Nuremberg; British Medical Association (N.S.W. Branch); Mount Kosciusko Observatory, N.S.W.; Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, Honolulu; University of Chicago Press; Maryland Geological Survey, Baltimore ; Editor of the Mineral Industry, New York ; American Institute of Electrical Engineers, New York. 6 WILLIAM M. HAMLET. Workers in Chemistry have not been idle during the past year, as may be seen from the list enumerated above, there having been five papers in this subject, two of which are of special interest; I refer to Nos. 6 and 14, by Mr. R. T. Baker, and Henry G. Smith, Curator and Assistant-Curator respectively of the Technological Museum of Sydney. The oils from some half dozen new species of Kucalypts have been chemically investigated by Mr. Smith, who has been successful in obtaining from these oils some important constituents. He has also contributed to this Society a paper on the chemistry of the camphor of Eucalyptus oil (eudesmol). The discovery that the little shrub found on the sand hills around Port Jackson (Darwinia fascicularis), yielded an oil consisting largely of geranyl acetate was also made. ‘The presence of the important alcohol, geraniol, in this shrub in fairly large amount promises a great commercial future for this species. Of the work and discovery published in Europe, many things of purely theoretical interest have been announced, chief among these items I would mention the solidification of hydrogen, the sterilisation of water on the large scale, the discovery of a sub- stitute for india-rubber, which has been named ‘ velvril,’ and the extension of the researches on nitrification by Winogradsky and Oméliansky. The marked feature of modern chemistry is its broad compre- hensiveness, embracing as it does so many separate divisions in the affairs of life, the concentration of attention necessary in any one branch of chemical research being such as to demand all the available energy on the part of the individual ; hence in these times no single individual can presume to anything like a profound knowledge of the great science or even follow it in its many rami- fications. I therefore affirm that it does not come within the grasp of any one man to master the vast accumulation of facts now forming the science of chemistry, and the far-reaching appli- cations and multifarous adaptations of the science. On this account specialism is yearly becoming more pronounced, and the old dual divisions of the science into Organic and Inorganic, become ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 7 extended to—Systematic or descriptive chemistry; systematic studies of chain molecules, variants of carbon and _ nitrogen ; physical chemistry; mineralogical chemistry; pharmaceutical chemistry; applied metallurgical and manufacturing chemistry ; physiological chemistry including its applications to pathology and biology generally; State chemistry. Caution is now more than ever needed in warning the science worker to avoid the danger he runs of falling into ruts on the highroad of Science, since the narrowing influence of specialism may, and probably does, cramp the vision, interfering with that coherent thought that sees the continuity and correlation of the Universe. Pure Chemistry—the science dealing essentially with the con- stitution, properties and transformations of what we provisionally call ‘matter’—co-existent throughout all time and space, presents us in imagination with a picture of our world in times so remote, that the interval between them and any historic period is greater than one can imagine or realise. The Hon. James Norton, LL.D., President of the Linnean Society, has lately given us an estimate of the age of Australia which he puts at ninety-three millions of years. Taking the period during which life has appeared on the earth as seven hundred and four millions of years, then probably one thousand millions of years will carry us back to the gaseous epoch—times when seas of liquid lava afforded footing neither for man, nor for any other living creature. Our terrestial history may thus be summarised :— I. Cosmic epochs of molecular dissociation, when definite compounds as now revealed to our sense-organs, did not exist ; epochs, for example, when silicon and oxygen could not assume the crystalline solid form we so familiarly know as quartz, forming as it does, a solid crust for a habitable earth. II. Viscous epochs, or plastic times, when the globe began to consolidate and form its crust. III. The long avenues of Geological Time. IV. The succession of Paleolithic and Neolithic Ages. 8 WILLIAM M. HAMLET. V. Prehistoric ages covered by the science of Geology. VI. Some ninety centuries of Historic Time. I do not presume to discuss those far away fascinating epochs of gaseous kinetics when the earth began to condense from its initial glowing vapoury vortex ; conditions that may be said to be, ‘not yet within the range of practical crystallisation,’ but, as with the wand of the magician, [ pass over sundry millions of years, and come down to the earliest historic period—one opened up for us through the brilliant discoveries of the Egyptologist, who places at our disposal contemporary records unique in value. But it is hardly possible to think of Egypt and Africa without digressing for a moment or two on those activities that now dominate por- tions of the British Empire in the Southern Hemisphere. That the end of so brilliant a century as the nineteenth should be marred by both war and plague, seems to me to be a humiliating blot upon the escutcheon of our human progress ; for a generation or more peace and progress have gone hand in hand, until we believed it to be almost impossible that events such as those we now witness could have happened, ‘‘considering,” as Carlyle says, ‘“‘our present advanced state of culture, and how the torch of science has now been brandished and borne about with more or less effect.” Such events are ugly survivals, not of the fittest, but of the undesirable, to be deplored by all thoughtful men, most of all by the man of science who has long contemplated their entire abolition from this planet. We have colonised this great continent of Australia, but there yet exists among us all the defects of the old regime, while the barrier of grim ignorance bars the way towards that true progress begotten of enlightment, whose reward is virtue and length of days. Here, so far as disease is concerned, I am reminded of the words of the illustrious Pasteur, “Tl est au pouvoir de ’homme de faire disparaitre de la surface — du globe les maladies parasitaires.” The ideal and as yet unattained Utopia—the City of Health depicted by Benjamin Ward Richardson—seems still very far off and will remain but the dream of the enthusiast, until the lessons ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 9 of elementary sanitation.shall have been learned and taken to heart by the masses of the people. This reproach on our vaunted civilisation must ever remain whilst science teaching is regarded _as something dry and curious, apart and remote from the wants of every day life. What a field for the establishment of the new and perfect City of Hygeia—the very Civitas Der—this Australia might have afforded us. I for one cherish the hope that the Federal City in this land of Australia will at least serve as the model of what can be accomplished in gilding the real with the ideal. Let the new city be the fruit of the full and complete knowledge of sanitation and an enlightened state policy, let it become the abode, figuratively and literally both of sweetness and light. May politicians arise from the dusty scramble for mere place and power, and labour towards the attainment of realisable ideals, and all that is implied by the term ‘commonwealth.’ But may not war and plague have their compensating after influences, witness already the ready outburst of Australian patriotism, and the application of modern research in dealing with maladies never dreamt of, say when Newton went down from Cambridge to the memorable seclusion of Woolsthorpe, to avoid the plague in the year 1666. Let us turn our attention from South Africa to the north of the Dark Continent, to that ancient land—the cradle of our science —to Egypt the home and birth-place of what was then known as the black art hidden science represented by the word x7pea. The word yypeu" first occurs in the Lexicon of Suidas, a Greek writer of the eleventh century, where it is defined as the art of preparing gold and silver ; but the idea of something black, 7.¢., the black art, obscure and hidden, is related to the Coptic or Egyptian khems, signifying obscure. According to Plutarch, the derivation of kemie is confirmed, namely, as I have already said, from the black soil of Egypt, the native name for Egypt itself being kemie, signi- fying black, the black soil of the land of Egypt. Used in con- junction with the Arabic particle ‘al’ equivalent to our definite 1 \npa, chema. texvn tepa, the sacred art. 10 WILLIAM M. HAMLET. article ‘the,’ we have a number of words interesting to the chemist including even the name given to the science itself. It may be interesting to make four of these words serve as the frame-work or text of my address to you on this occasion, [ there- fore bring before your notice the words:—Alkemie, Alkali, Alkaloid and Alkohol. Any historical survey of chemistry necessarily leads us back to the days of early Egypt, back to the age in which flourished the long extinct University of On, or Heliopolis, or Diospolis, with its reputed hundred professors, amongst whom we may reasonably conclude there must have been someone corresponding to our modern professor, not of chemistry — but of Kemie—the black art. Time will not, nor will your patience allow me to do more than glance at this fascinating subject, but among the notable alchemists of a later age I will mention two remarkable men, Geber and Paracelsus, and these but briefly, since both Geber and Paracelsus have received atten- tion from two of our members, Professor Liversidge! and Mr. F. B. Guthrie,* in addresses given before the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science. Geber and Paracelsus both, stand out in prominent outline in the records of history; Berthelot gives the name of the former as Jabir ib Hayyam; another authority gives the name as Gescheber. However that may be, he was a physician of the eighth century, and in the fulsome exaggeration of eastern writers, was said to be the author of five hundred treatises! He knew probably of the properties of many metals and minerals, the hydrostatic balance, the smelting furnace, the arts of distillation, sublimation, crystal- lisation and filtration; all however subordinated to the search after the Elixir Vite and the Philosopher’s stone. Paracelsus, who stands immortalised by the poet Robert Brown- ing, was of the sixteenth century, born at Einsiedeln in Switzer- land in 1493, (obiit 1541) and taught that the object of chemistry 1 Presidential Address, Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science, Sydney 1898. 2 Address Chemical Section, Melbourne 1900. ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 1 i was not so much the making of gold, as the advancement of medicine in the service of man; that the operations that go on in the human body are chemical functions. Like the ancient that he was, he personified energy and attributed good digestion to the action of the good genius Archzus who rendered the nutriment consumed assimilable, and separated the indigestible and excretory products. Disease was to be cured by medicines; and these in turn were to be provided by the sacred science of chemistry, extotHun tepa. Numbers, letters, the signs of the zodiac, animals, plants and organic substances form the symbolic notation of the time, and many of these there are in the vocabulary of the modern science of to-day, and not only of science, but our common language contains words of every day use; witness the word ‘gibberish,’ derived from the proper name Geber; and ‘bombast,’ from Paracelsus, who rejoiced in the name of Phillipus Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus Paracelsus. The acidulous critic will, I trust, exonerate me from both bombast and gibberish taken in their modern significance. Two other words of interest to the modern chemist, have come down to us from the alchemists, one, the familiar bain marie, used by the French for their water bath ; the term being derived from the jewess Mary, contemporary with Democritus ; and the other, the seal of Hermes. The ancients personified most things, and as Hermes was held high in reverence as the patron-father of the ‘black art,’ its devotees were spoken of as the Hermetic Philoso- -phers: one of the methods of the art being that of enclosing their gold solutions in glass, out of contact with the air, hence to her- metically seal a vessel, is both an operation and a phrase in use to this day. But the swummum bonum of the ancient alchemist, was the search for— “that stone which Philosophers in vain so long have sought. In vain, though by their powerful art they bind Volatile Hermes, and call up unbound In various shapes old Proteus from the sea, Drained through a limbec to his native form. What wonder then if fields and regions here 12 WILLIAM M. HAMLET. Breathe forth elixir pure, and rivers run Potable gold, when with one virtuous touch, Th’ arch-chemic Sun, so far from us remote, Produces, with terrestrial humour mixed, Here in the dark so many precious things Of colour glorious and effect so rare? ” Arising from the fruitless search for the magic stone' and the elixir vite, there appear many useful things, but above all a work- ing theory regarding the nature of things; I refer to the four- element theory of fire, air, earth, and water, of Empedocles, which by no means could appear absurd or worthless to the ancients, for only a century ago the term ‘earth’ meant, and included, many solid substances ; three amongst them being known, and even known to this day as ‘alkaline earths.’ Moreover ‘water’ both meant and included all liquids, and embodied the idea of liquidity generally, while ‘air’ embraced all gases and vapours; and ‘fire’ was nothing less than the all-prevailing energy acting upon and changing all the visible forms of matter. Have we so very much advanced in our notions of general classification, when we remember that our three-fold division of matter stands as solid, liquid, and gaseous? Historical chemistry, then, leads us back to the alchemists, the general trend of whose labours were, unconsciously, towards the foundations of our present science; but let us never forget that the changes we speak of as chemical, were in full operation away back in ages more remote than any historical period. Primeval is but a relative term, leading us back in imagination to periods when terrestrial atmospheres were irrespirable gases enfolding the reeking planet. To Egypt and the EKast—the theatre of many lost civilisations—the chemist turns with never-failing interest. Egypt he looks upon as the birthplace of the great science ; where tombs, temples, papyri and cylinders of baked clay are now unfolding their interesting records and linking the present with the past.’ 1 That gold was the chief object of search by the alchemist, by the aid of his ‘‘ magic stone,” is shown by the name which the science of chemistry originally bore, namely, Xpucorota. 2 For many of these interesting details, I am indebted to the researches of Maspero, Mahaffy, Professor Petrie, and the Wiedemann Geschichte. ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 1. Pass with me, in imagination, to the two great rival cities of Egypt—Memphis and Thebes—the hundred-gated Thebes men- tioned by Homer.! Both cities were presided over by their tutelary gods, Ptah Ra and Ammon, Amen, Amun or Ammon-Ra; and while Memphis had surrendered on the triumphal entry of Alexander the Great into Egypt, the Greek conqueror, for political reasons, had offered sacrifice to these deities in order te win over public opinion; but the greater amongst the gods was Ammon, whose temple was at Thebes, and whose celebrated shrine lay at some distance across the Nitrian desert at the Oasis of Ammon. This place was, in the eyes of the Egyptians, the holy of holies; for here, and here only, could the Pharoah become the anointed King of Egypt, the chosen of Ra, the beloved of Ammon, victor of the world, ruler supreme, and dispenser of immortality. Such a consummation of royal prerogatives was devoutly wished for by the great Alexander, who nothing lacking, proceeded forthwith to the oracle of Ammon where he was welcomed by the high priests, put through the rite and ceremonies of Ammon, endowed with the immortal token, the only formula which could stamp him as the chosen of Ra, the beloved of Ammon, the king divine of all Egypt. Unusual interest is, I think, attached to this regal formula and ceremonial, this famous dictum, ‘chosen of Ra, beloved of Ammon’; inasmuch as two. species of matter, one an element, the other a compound, take us back to very ancient stages of the historic period: I here refer to the element copper and the more complex nucleus ammonia. I believe the name copper is comparatively of modern origin, the Roman derivation being, as is well known, from the island of Cyprus, while the older xaAKos, may have come to the Greeks after having filtered its way, and therefore becoming corrupted, through the Phenician and Etruscan languages. I hold it to be probable that the original word, signifying the well known red metal, is derived from the sun-god Ra, (1€Avos.) The weapons and implements of primitive man in the land of the Nile were, of course, the chipped flints; many examples of + Tliad, 1x., 381. 14 WILLIAM M. HAMLET. which are given by M. J. De Morgan ;' while later on, but still in pre-historic times, as well as during the earlier dynasties, copper tools, vases and weapons were in use in Egypt. It is easy to suppose that bright ruddy copper should be linked in name with the sun, and the Sun-god Ra, whose symbol in cartouche and hieroglyphic was ©. This supposition finds support in the sur- vival of the word ‘rame,’ used to this day by the Italians to denote the metal copper. Rame seems to be derived from other sources than decayed Latin, for if we bear in mind that the people now speaking Italian, inhabit the very same country of ancient Etruria?” and knowing the persistence with which some words survive, even ~ the decay of empires, it seems to me to be by no means a far fetched theory to account for the word rame, as the survival of a word that has come down to us from Egyptian and Etruscan sources, it is, I think, more than a mere coincidence. Itis also a curious fact that the word in the Etruscan language denoting the country itself, is— AY AZAY Rasena (read from right to left). The word for copper would be in Etruscan— if we form the word phonetically from the little ITIA q we know of Etruscan—that un- classed solitary remnant of the languages of the past, Passing from the question as to the derivation of the word ‘rame’ as an existing Huropean name for copper, I would point out another link connecting the antiquity of ancient Egypt with our present day science; that link is to be found in the word given to the volatile alkali—that familiar, pungent, tear-exciting liquid — spirits of hartshorn, which, when vapourised, is the alkaline air of our forefathers—ammonia.”* The Greek conquerors noted with what esteem Ammon was held by the Egyptians, and we have seen its importance in the anointing of kings. Among Greek gods, the 1M. De Morgan—Recherches sur l’origine d’ Egypte. 2 The Cities and Countries of Etruria by Geo. Dennis London Murray. 3 Ammonia, as a gas, was discovered by Priestly in 1774; the solution was, however, known to the alchemists of the fifteenth century as Spiritus salis urine. x ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 15 nearest analogue to Ammon would be their Zeus, whereupon they were not slow in identifying him with their great Jupiter—Ocos Qeov, as Plato calls him; so the god was henceforth given the double appellation, Jupiter Ammon.’ Ammon is twice mentioned in the prophetical books of the Old Testament :—‘“‘I will punish Ammon of No,? and Pharoah, and Egypt, with her gods, and her kings; even Pharoah and them that trust in him.”’ “Art thou better than populous No, [Nu] Ammon, situate among the rivers, whose rampart was the sea, [the Nile] Ethiopia and Egypt were her strength, and it was infinite.” * Now it is highly probable that the distillation of camel’s dung, or the soot derived from its combustion, yielded a product known to the Egpytians as a source of ammonia; while the white deposits found in some parts, notably in the Nitrian desert, yielded nitre,° called also nitron, which gives us, in turn, the root for our appropri- ate nitro-generator, nitrogen, so named by Chaptal. If, therefore, Zeus or Ammon,’ the chief among gods, was the father of mankind, 1Tke fossils of the Mesozoic Age known as Ammonites are also named after the convoluted horn, pictured on the head of the god Jupiter- Ammon. 2 No, On, Heliopolis, or AvooroXus. On or Beth-shemesh, Jer. xliii. 13. Curiously enough the letters of these words are often transposed in ancient writings, and may occur both as On or No. 3 Jer. xlvi. 25. 4 Nahum iii. 8. 5 By the word ‘ nitre,’ often ‘nitron’ and ‘ natron,’ was included a white generic soda compound. I am indebted to The Chemist and Druggist fora brief notice of Soda in Egypt, which bears on this subject :—‘‘ North-West from Cairo, between two small hills, stretches a valley which, by reason of the large quantity of soda found in it, was formerly known far and wide. Until the discovery of the Leblanc process, this soda was sent in large quantities to Europe, but during recent decades the export of Egyptian soda has been limited to Greece and Turkey. The soda-valley possesses a considerable number of lakes from ten to twelve metres under sea level. With the rising of the Nile, which takes place in about the end of August, the lakes begin to fill, and reach their highest point about the end of January. In the month of March the water gradually evaporates, and the bed is covered with a layer of natural soda, which presents the appearance of large lumps of ice. The deposits at Wady Natron are practically inexhaustible.”’ 6 Whether the Ammonites, the tribes mentioned in the Old Testament, derive their name in this way is uncertajn. 16 WILLIAM M. HAMLET. then this alkaline body’ and its primary congener, nitrogen, both bear interesting names, associated as they are with all that pertains to life upon this planet. Particularly interesting is the evolution of the simple symbol N for nitrogen. The hieroglyphic sign used by the ancient Egyptians, as may be seen in the cartouche of the Pharaohs, at Abydos and elsewhere, is » ; the Phcenician is 7; the Etruscan form is 7; while the Greek form brings it nearly identical with the modern n. If of such interest from the antiquarian point of view, will they not afford equal, or perchance greater interest, from the point of view _ of molecular mechanics ? Our position as to scientific belief is this:—that the depart- ments of knowledge dealing with the properties of aggregates of matter, and hitherto labelled and recorded under the terms chemistry and physics, may, and rather should, be termed the mechanics of the Ether; for do we not exist in an Ethereal con- tinuum, when facts are now being co-related, in a manner the like of which is unknown in history? The air is thick, it has been said, with impending discovery just as the world wasin Newton’s time waiting the arrival of the master mind who shall link together all that is now known, harvesting the results into a new and greater ‘ Principia.’ That those complete and radical changes exhibited in ethereal vortex motion, the so-called matter, should be classed as chemistry: while the transient vortex changes capable of speedy diminution, reversal, and change back again into the original state should form the domain of physics, is convenient for purposes of reference and study, but where chemistry ceases or physics begins, can nowadays be only of interest to the curious: the chemist must embrace both. Time does not allow of my treating these matters other than as 1 ‘lhe word ‘alkali’ means ‘to fry,’ or ‘ the fry,’ ‘the roasted’ (al kali), the arabic word qualey, or kaley, meaning fried, or roasted ina pan; hence the calcined ash left on the incineration of a plant or of any vegetable matter was called al kali, a word that has come down to us, practically unchanged, from the alchemistss ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 17 generalities, but we may, I think, try and picture in space and follow in imagination, the track of a molecule of ammonia, con- fining ourselves to common terrestial temperatures, disregarding on the one hand dissociation temperatures, as well as that wonderful approach to the absolute zero, made during the last year or so, by Dewar in solidifying hydrogen. The mental picture I have of the ammonia molecule is that of a central nucleus and attendant atoms, which we may call the central sun and planets of an imaginary planetary system. This sun we call nitrogen, and, without doing violence to our newer conceptions of matter being a vortex motion, is a conceivable mass, holding three planets at fixed but, to us, unknown distances. These three planets are none other than the hydrogen atoms. Place these planets in their proper orbits, and we picture the ammonia system in space. But facts show us that there must be five possible orbits; witness the compound sal-ammoniac. But, with the magic clash of atoms and the redistribution of vantage positions in the molecule, let both a carbon atom, two oxygen atoms and a water molecule, come into position in opposition to two molecules of ammonia, and we have ammonia carbonate.! Once again, rearrange the positions inside the molecule and we have the molecule of urea, being in fact, the famous synthesis by Wohler of the first compound of animal origin made artificially in the laboratory. Nitrogen being the central figure of the ancient alkaline air we call ammonia, is moreover the pivot-atom of a class of bodies of much later discovery, which, having the power of combining with an acid to form a salt, resemble an alkali and were therefore called alkaloids, [like alkali]. The relations and constitution of some of these alkaloids will be seen from what follows :—After the synthesis of urea by Friedrich Wohler in 1828, it was felt that the structure of the more complex uric acid would yield to the atom-building-instinct of the modern chemist ; _ this was effected by Behrend and Roosen, also by Horbaczewski, 1 The Spiritus urine of the ancients. B—May 2, 1900. 18° WILLIAM M. HAMLET. but the most complete demonstration of the structure of uric acid is given us by the brilliant researches of Fischer." He formulates a framework thus :— iN=O, | Co C.—N7 | Reese: N= ON Filling up the available hydrogen positions, a compound is represented which has actually been obtained, called by Fischer, purine, (purum uricum ): N—CH al HC one ia CH N— C= Naw Hypoxanthine is 6—oxypurine, and Xanthine is 2 : 6—dioxy- purine. Extending the oxygen positions to 2 :6:8 we get trioxypurine or uric acid : HN—co [eal oc Ci be COH HN—C—N~ . Placing two methyl radicles in the third and seventh positions we have 3 : 7—dimethylxanthine which is the alkaloid—theobromine. The addition of a third methyl] radicle formulates the composition of caffeine, the alkaloid present in tea and coffee, and which is 1:3: 7—trimethylxanthine— CH, N——CO | ho Osye | | CH Nee Sn CH, What may be the structure of the globulins, the albumoses, hetero- and deutero-, the peptones, and that family of compounds 1 Nature, Vol. ux1., p. 187. ae ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 19 often spoken of as albuminoids, we cannot yet determine, but I crave your attention for a few moments to consider the origin and final destiny of some of the nitrogenous bodies I have mentioned. The economical evolution of human energy, is a problem that is attracting a good deal of attention, but the human machine, in converting the potential energy of bread and cheese into muscular and mental activity, or into some equivalent work value, has to dispose of effete waste matter—excretory products—that may be compared to the smoke, ashes and scoriz of the steam engine; for as in raising energy by means of steam we have waste products, so we have three excretory products expelled from the human body. They are:—(1) Carbon dioxide ; (2) Urea and uric acid, together with a number of bodies of greater interest to the pathologist than to the sanitarian ; (3) Surplus undigested food,’ cellulose and indigestible fibre, embodying the waste—food-ashes called excreta. Now all these substances, once outside man’s body, recoil on him, offending all his senses, while under many circumstances they become a danger and a menace to his very life, but more particularly do they effect the well-being of his near neighbours ; it is but a truism to say, that man’s duty to his neighbour, there- fore, includes also the continual adjustment of his internal relations to those external relations of the State, of which he is a member. This danger becomes accentuated, the offensiveness more pronounced, the more man becomes civilised, and the more closely men congregate together in towns and cities; [ emphasise the latter condition, because the further men live apart, the easier of solution is the difficulty. We have then something to be gotten rid of. How ancient man, and how man in a state of nature, does get rid of it is obvious and known to all.” How the question was severely let alone, down to within a half century ago, I need not particularise to any great extent, 1 The greater the amount of the latter the worse for the individual, who in this respect is the slave of unproductive energy. 2 For the Mosaic injunction, see Deuteronomy, xxiii. 12 & 13, R. Ver. 20 WILLIAM M. HAMLET. sufficient it will be if I say that town inhabitants :—(1) Used the street as a sewer ; (2) Advanced to the cespool] system, the use of pans, tubs, et hoc genus omne; (3) Invented the water-carriage method of removal with discharge into rivers and seas. But anew danger arises from the mixing with water and removal to a distance, man is confronted with new dangers and new diseases— sewer disease, and the next question is, what is he to do with it ? how dispose of it having in view two things: the health of the state, and economy—if needs be. Of the many methods of purification, by chemical precipitation, by electrical decomposition, I shall not weary you with, but proceed to the next stage of my subject, namely, that of fermentation, and afterwards, more particularly, to that of ammonical fermentation. Fermentation is the name given to the phenomenon of change which takes place when saccharine and other liquids, are acted upon by micro-organisms at their proper life-temperatures, the word fermentation being derived from fervere to boil. When the minute organism known as Saccharomyces cerevisce grows and multiplies at a temperature of 25° to 35° C. in sugar solutions, alcohol, carbon dioxide and some other bodies are formed; 100 parts of cane sugar or 105:26 parts of grape sugar yielding on fermentation :—Alcohol 51:11 per cent.; carbon dioxide 48°89 per cent.; succinic acid 0°67 per cent.; glycerin 3:16 per cent. Thus, out of one hundred parts of cane sugar, about ninety-five parts are decomposed, four parts disappear and form succinic acid, glycerin and carbon dioxide, while one part is added to the newly- formed ferment. The chief body sought for in fermentation is alcohol, and here we have our fourth arabic word, al-Kohol. The word alcohol means in arabic ‘the finest powder,’ and at one time denoted the fine powder used by ladies to beautify the eyes; a fine metallic powder being used in the East to stain the eyelids. With the early alchemists, it meant a sublimate or anything in a very fine state of division ; flowers of sulphur, for instance. It was prob- ably applied to finely powdered quicklime, which if used to ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 21 strengthen spirit by absorbing the water that always accompanies alcohol, would give meaning to the term spiritus alcoholisatus; thus alcoholised spirit soon became corrupted to simple alcohol, which is a far more modern term than either spiritus or aqua vite. Kopp, in his Geschichte der Chemie, supports this view as to the origin of the word alcohol. : Alcohol is also defined as an essence—a quintessence,’ or spirit obtained by distillation or rectification, it is the shorter term for ‘alcohol of wine,’ this being the most familiar of spirits; the Teutonic ‘Branntwein’ from ‘brennen,’ to burn or to fire, giving rise to our word ‘brandy,’ while the Keltic, through the Erse or Trish rendering of eau de vie or aqua vite, usque-baugh, gives us, corrupted, ‘whisky.’ The modern chemical application of the word however, is given to a systematic series of compounds, the first term of which is methyl alcohol, the second, we hear a great deal of—one notorious name | will here modify to that of the ‘soluble fiend,’ but whether diluted into a drink, or employed as a vehicle for varnishing and polishing furniture, it is also a valuable and highly concentrated fuel, that may some day, when the coal measures are exhausted, become the fuel of the future. We have traced through some periods of the world’s history the four words—alkemie, alkali, alkaloid, and alkohol—and you will have perhaps perceived that I do not now intend dealing with the famous stimulant, the aqua vite of the ancients, the ethylic alcohol of the moderns, but my purpose is to show how the phenomenon of fermentation is now being made use of, through a totally different set of fermentation-products, in attacking one of the most import. ant sanitary problems of the age. From what has already been said, the waste and effete products derived from human beings, when congregated in cities and towns, mixed with a miscellaneous variety of waste liquids from manufactories and human dwellings» make up a liquid of great complexity—a liquid well-known and well-hated as sewage. The question as to its disposal, quickly 1 Quintessence means the fifth rectification beyond which it was thought useless or impossible to go. 22, WILLIAM M. HAMLET. cheaply, and above all effectively, is an important one. What is to be done with it? This is an oft-repeated cry. involving a question that has tried the patience and ingenuity of whole genera- tions of men, while with too many of us this repugnant subject is shelved, the burden of dealing with it being laid on whomsoever will take it upon his shoulders. Men, ostrich-like, pretend not to know of the existence of the evil, ‘pass by on the other side,’ leaving it to Bumbledom to grossly mismanage. To enumerate or describe a tithe of what has been done and suggested, and the multitude of schemes that have appeared, would filla volume. Such a task I do not intend to enter upon; it is enough to know of the existence of a putrescible liquid that must —profitably or otherwise—be removed and disposed of: a duty imperative on the part of the body politic. Methods of removal are mechanical, and belong to the domain of the engineer ; methods of disposal are of another order, and belong to the domain of biology and chemistry ; so that biologist, chemist, and engineer, join forces in attacking a problem, old as when Tarquinius Priscus first sought to do the same for ancient Rome twenty centuries back, when the famous Cloaca Maxima discharged itself into the Tiber. Hitherto, what has been done? After great expenditure of time, energy and money, the latter probably running into millions, men begin to ask how mankind has borne with the evil in the past. The answer is, that water- carried sewage was unknown in pre-Roman times, everything being expeditiously returned to Mother Earth from whence it ~ came. With us moderns, the method of removal by water con- siderably enchances the difficulty. With the idea of returning excreta to the soil the sewage farm came into existence, but experience has shown it to be a dismal failure, resulting in water- logging and fouling land that could otherwise be turned to more profitable uses. Now let us apply the method of fermentation to ordinary sewage, what must happen? In the case of sugary liquids, we see the cells of Saccharomyces cerevise break down the con- stitution of sugar, yielding carbon dioxide and alcohol. What ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 23 should the organism in sewage do? In the light of experiments made during the last few years, this liquid should be resolved into ammonia, carbonate of ammonia, nitrate of ammonia, marsh gas and carbon dioxide, the chief nitrogen and carbon-constituents of the sewage—in other words, a complete breaking down of highly complex nitrogenous and carbonaceous bodies into harmless innocuous inorganic compounds. This breaking down of nitrogenous matter may be best exempli- fied in its very simplest form, namely, in that of the ammoniacal fermentation of urine, the chief constituent of which is urea, a compound that may be resolved into other compounds, the next simplest in order to those resulting from its ultimate decomposition, (hydrolysis of urea, Dumas), for by simple heating with water, or heating in a alkaline solution, the following change takes place :— 004 NH OH. — CO, £2 NH, By zymolysis, 7.e., by the intervention of life-changes, or in other words by simple ammoniacal fermentation (Pasteur, 1860, Van Tieghem, 1864) this self same change is brought about by the microscopic organism Micrococcus uree. By simply abandoning urine exposed to the air, this organic change is quickly brought about ; the whole of the urea becoming converted into carbon dioxide and ammonia, which, at common temperatures, would combine as ammonia carbonate, a compound easily resolvable by the nitrifying organisms into ammonia nitrite and finally, into ammonia nitrate. We have here what has been called the ‘septic system of sewage disposal,’ the analogue, in some respects, of alcoholic fermentation, but instead of ethylic alcohol being the product of the symbiotic change, it is probable that the simpler methylic alcohol”is evolved, which under the circumstances, 1 Pasteur, Comptes rendus, Vol. 1., 1860. Van Tieghem, Comptes rendus, Vol. tviit., 1864. Jaksch, Zeitschrift, f. physiologische Chemie, Vol. v., 1881, p.395. Leubeand Grasser, Virchow’s Archiv, Vol. c., p. 556. 2 Mr. Doherty at my request searched Sydney sewage and effluents therefrom for methyi alcohol but hitherto without success. I am afraid that even should it be found the critic may say it had originally come from methylated spirit thrown away with the liquid domestic waste. 24 WILLIAM M. HAMLET. is resolved a stage further in the direction of simplification to methane, which with hydrogen and carbon dioxide, are the principal gases evolved in the process. After the discovery of the function of nitrification brought about by the nitrifying organisms by Warrington and Percy Frankland, the State Board of Health of Massachusetts in 1888-9 were induced to try the method of natural self-purification by these organisms. To Captain Sir Douglas Galton’ belongs the credit of introducing the system to the notice of English sanitarians. The process was very soon tried, and Dibdin in 1893, was astonished to find that by merely passing sewage through a shallow coke filter, he obtained a fairly good effluent, as good as some that were then being obtained by more expensive precipitation processes. Scott-Moncrieff in 1892 devised a clever application of the system, using an open tank filled with flints for the first fermentation, then passing the liquid over a series of trays con- taining coke, all exposed to the air, whereby the work of the nitrifying organisms had full effect, resulting in a beautiful clear effluent approaching in character to a potable water. Donald Cameron was the first to boldly take the process in hand and use it on a large scale, which he did in 1896 at Belle Isle, Exeter, since when, it has been known as the Biological Method, or Septic Tank System. It should here be stated that several modifications have been introduced by others, so that we have the primary biological method, with or without previous chemical precipitation processes, but the true zymolysisof sewage should becarried on withabsolutely no addition of chemicals or antiseptics whatsoever. Ducat introduced his aérated, bacterial, self-acting coke-bed in 1897; Dibden? had, however, been working at the natural or self- purification of sewage from 1884 to 1898, and his results, obtained by simply passing crude sewage through coke and ‘breeze’ filter- 1 Jour. Sanitary Institute, Vol. xvut. p. 1. 2 Journ. Soc. Chem., Ind., Vol. xiv., p. 922; and Idem, Vol. xvil., p. 315° ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 25 beds, were such a success that chemists and sanitarians could no longer afford to ignore the merits of the method ; hence experi- ments were made in a number of places in the Empire, Sydney included. In the meantime the London County Council had determined to severely test the new, or rather old, biological pro- cess, and in the hands of Drs. Clowes and Houston such gratifying results were obtained that I make no apology in giving you an account of the treatment of the crude sewage of the City of London.t These two gentlemen are chemist and bacteriologist respectively to the London County Council, and great interest is now being taken in their results, inasmuch as they are both inde- pendent scientific men, having no patent-right interest in the process. Their attention was directed to the purification of London’s crude sewage as it is delivered at the Barking and Crossness Outfall Works. A bacteriological examination of the sewage showed that between three and four millions of micro-organisms are present in one centimeter cube of the crude sewage, their rate of propaga- tion or growth being from sixteen to seventeen millions per twenty-four hours. They consist of*:—JS. Hnteritides sporogenes,; B. Colt communis; B. mycoides; B. subtilis; B. mesentericus; Sarcine Yeast-cells, Saccharomyces, sp.; Moulds; 5. Fluorescens liquefaciens; and other Protean forms, vaguely known in the elder Frankland’s time as the ‘sewage fungus.’ It is shown that the putrefaction of sewage may proceed by aérobic bacteria under aérobic conditions; by anaérobic bacteria under semi-anaérobic conditions; and by strictly anaérobic bacteria under strictly anaérobic bacteria. Dr. Clowes abandoned all likely complications arising from over- elaboration of apparatus, doing away with the shallow trays used 1 Bacterial Treatment of Sewage (Second Report) by Dr. Clowes and Dr. Houston. London: P. S. King and Son, Great Smith-street, Victoria- street, Westminster. 2 Filtration of Sewage—Report on the Bacteriological Examination of London Crude Sewage by Dr. Frank Clowes (First Report). London: P. S. King and Son, Great Smith-street, Victoria-street, Westminster. 26 WILLIAM M. HAMLET. by Scott-Moncrieff, as well as the closed septic tank of Cameron, reducing the experiments to the last stage of simplicity. Two plain open rectangular brick-lined tanks, twenty-two feet six inches long, ten feet eight inches wide, and twelve feet deep, giving a superficial area of 323 of an acre each. A third tank, of similar shape and area, but six feet in depth, was also employed to note differences in efficiency caused by depth. Laid on the bottom of these tanks were parallel series of loosely-jointed drain pipes to assist in drawing off the effluent. Walnut-sized fragments of common gas-coke are placed in the tanks to the depths of four and six feet respectively. When thus ready, the coke beds are filled with screened sewage, the screening intercepting some curious and miscellaneous items of the wealth of the absent minded citizen, such as tobacco pipes, purses (empty), brushes, combs, and Dr. Clowes even mentions ‘wedding rings.’ Seven minutes are allowed for the filling of the tank, then comes a resting period of three hours. The word ‘rest’ is here but a relative term, for it is really a period of great bacterial activity. The outflow afterwards extends over one hour, the bed remaining eight hours empty in order to aérate itself. The tank is again filled and the sequence continued, one million gallons per acre per day being the working capacity of the system. Later experiments made with thirteen feet beds show no appre- ciable advantages over the six feet of coke. Here then we have an intermittent process for the treatment of sewage of undoubted simplicity: crude sewage is screened and flowed into a tank con- taining some four or six feet of coke, in pieces of the size of walnuts, submerged for three hours, and just allowed to flow out again. ’ And what are the results? Clowes measures the degree of puri- fication attained by this process by finding the amount of oxygen required te oxidise the putrescible organic matter; first in the raw sewage, and then in the effluent. The results show that over fifty per cent. of purification takes place. His figures show that 51-30 per cent.’ of the putrescible organic matter is dealt with, so that an effluent is obtained pure enough to support fish life. 1 In allowing a longer period of time for the fermentation, results as high as eighty-six per cent. have been obtained by Clowes. ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. D7 The general conclusions arrived at by Dr. Clowes are:—that the process offers the readiest and the cheapest method of sewage purification at presentknown. He says, that “neither on chemical not possibly on bacteriological grounds can any serious objection be raised to the introduction of the effluent from the coke-beds into a portion of the river Thames which is cut off by locks from the intakes of the Water Companies, and the water from which is not employed for drinking purposes, and cannot be used on account of its ‘brackish’ nature. The effluent certainly will not cause any deposit upon the river-bed, and will even tend to render the turbid water of the lower river more clear and transparent. At the same time, the liquid discharged from the outfall into the river will be sweet and entirely free from smell. Further, it will carry into the river the bacteria necessary for completing its own purification in contact with the aérated river water, and under no conditions can it therefore become foul after it has mingled with the stream. The effluent will in no way interfere with fish-life in the stream.” As compared with the present process of chemical precipitation and sedimentation, the bacterial process presents the following advantages :—(a) It requires no chemicals; (b) It produces no offensive sludge, but only a deposit of sand or vegetable tissue which is free from odour; (c) It removes the whole of the suspended matter, instead of only about eighty per cent. thereof ; (d) It effects the removal of 51.30 per cent. of the dissolved oxidisable and putrescible matter, as compared with the removal of seventeen per cent. only, affected by the present chemical treatment ; (e) Further, the resultant liquid is entirely free from objectionable smell, and does not become foul when it is kept ; it further maintains the life of fish. ‘In their report a number of reasons are given, showing that it is unwise in the present state of our knowledge to recklessly condemn an effluent on bacteriological ground alone, without full knowledge of all the requirements of the case. In the attempt to treat sewage on biological lines, it is to be noted that the solution 28 WILLIAM M. HAMLET. of the suspended matter and even the partial destruction of putrescible matters by microbial agencies afforded sufficient ground for justifying the process, at all events as a preliminary measure. Whether this preliminary treatment is to be supplemented by further treatment, either by passing through coke-beds or by land irrigation, or by any other method, is a matter largely dependent on circumstances. In the present case there are practical points which first of all demand consideration, and although it may be most desirable to obtain an effluent chemically pure and bacteriologically above suspicion of danger, it is to be thought of that an effluent not altogether satisfactory in one or other, or even in both, of these respects may yet fulfil all necessary requirements without passing out of the range of practicability. In certain cases it may be imperative to obtain an effluent bacteriologicaily sound, but it does not follow that a similar result is urgently called for in other cases, as, for example, where an effluent is turned into a watercourse which is not used for drinking purposes, and which already may contain practically all the bacteria that are found in sewage.” The history of fermentation, putrefaction, and nitrification has latterly been so frequently repeated that I hesitate in doing much more than mention dates, general results, and the names of those whose researches have opened up for us the possibilities of sewage zymolysis. The earliest observer to perceive the low forms of life that play so important a part in the decomposition of animal matter, was Leewenhoeck,! who in 1675 was not a little astonished in getting glimpses of that nether world—invisible to the unassisted eye—that world of life we now recognise as bacteriology. I can only mention men’s names as the ‘stepping stones to higher things” in linking this seventeenth century science worker with the latest developments of this subject. 1 Leewenhoeck—Opera omnia, 1722. 2 Leewenhoeck 1675, Muller 1773, The Abbé Spallanzani 1777, Schulze 1836, Ehrenberg 1838, Schwann 1839, Dujardin 1841, Helmoltz 1843, Cohn 1858, Schroder and Von Dusch 1854, Davaine 1859, Pasteur 1862, Van Tieghem 1864, Schloesing and Mintz 1877, Beyerinck 1888, Wino- gradsky 1890, Warrington 1891, Oméliansky 1900. ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 29 Now, what is there in the nature of things to account for this process of putrefaction? The coke, like a sponge, is full of inter- stices and holds a large volume of atmospheric air, which is destined to play an important part in the process; carbon, as is well known, has the property of holding large volumes of gases; common charcoal can take up ninety times its own volume of ammonia gas. A fermentation is inaugurated in the sewage under these condi- tions, the sewage itself containing the micro-organism necessary for its own decomposition. Proteids break up, their nitrogen being changed into ammonia ; urea is transformed into ammonia carbonate ; sulphur is changed to hydrogen sulphide. Hydrogen is recombined to form methane ; carbon takes oxygen to appear again as the dioxide; while some of the nitrogen suffers differing degrees of oxidation, appearing as the lower oxides and sometimes is even reduced to free nitrogen. This change has been called the biological treatment of sewage, or the biolysis of sewage, (Scott-Moncrieff) ; or as I propose, I think, more correctly—the zymolysis of sewage. The fermentation- change known as putrefaction or decomposition, and tersely des- cribed by Duclaux in the following words:—“Whenever and wherever there is a decomposition of organic matter, whether it be the case of a herb or an oak, of a worm or a whale, the work is exclusively done by infinitely small organisms. They are the important, almost the only, agents of universal hygiene ; they clear away more quickly than the dogs of Constantinople, or the wild beasts of the desert, the remains of all that has had life; they protect the living against the dead. They do more; if there are still living beings, if, since the hundreds of centuries the world has been inhabited, life continues, it is to them we owe it.” The appearance and disappearance of nitrogen is remarkable. During many years experience in the examination and analysis of sewage and sewage effluents, I have been unable to find nitrites, and very often have failed to find any nitrous or nitric nitrogen at all. During some recent researches as to the true composition of sewage, it was decided to take samples of sewage at all hours 30 WILLIAM M. HAMLET. of the day and night. To do this an analyst had to be stationed at the Botany Sewage Farm for some consecutive days ; and as a result, Mr. Doherty made the discovery that at certain hours, nitrites regularly make their appearance, commencing at the early hours of the morning from daylight until ten o’clock in the forenoon. After that hour, they disappear for the rest of the day; again making their appearance next morning. The process of nitrification is no doubt accelerated by light and oxygen, although the nitrifying organisms do their work to some extent in the dark. Many reversible reactions go on in sewage, since as we know that in the process of oxidation of iron in air, ammonia is formed. Ammonia is converted into nitrous and nitric acids. Nitrous and nitric acids change back again into ammonia, while, in some cases even free nitrogen is formed ; but the sequence of changes that happen when human dejecta, along with considerable volumes of water flow into the sewage fermentation-tanks are, that ammonia free and loosely combined, is the main result ; and then, and then only, does the nitric fermentation take place, in two stages ; first the formation of ' nitrous nitrogen by B. nitrificans (nitrites), then a period of rest, and then, the final change into nitric nitrogen (nitrates), but, whether the changes are the immediate results of the bacteria themselves, or the result of enzymes secreted or elaborated by the organism, they are symbiotic changes of a remarkable character ; my opinion is, that asin the other processes of fermentation, the enzymes are the immediate cause of the breaking down of proteid matter. Notwithstanding the reproach cast upon Sydney by the revelations of her insanitary condition lately brought to light by the Plague in our midst, it should here be recorded that Mr. J. M. Smail, Engineer to the Metropolitan Board of Water Supply and Sewerage, and Mr. Davis, Chief Engineer for Sewerage Con- struction of the Public Works Department, have in looking 1 From Winogradsky’s researches two organisms are concerned in the process of nitrification, M. nitrificans, (Van Tieghem) and two in the process of de-nitrification, B. De-nitrificans a and £. ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 31 forward to the application of biological methods in dealing with the sewage of Sydney, put the process into active operation at the Botany Sewage farm, on an experimental scale, and at Rookwood on a real working scale; plans and models of the system I have now the pleasure of showing you to-night, through the kindness of Mr. Smail, and of Mr. R. R. P. Hickson, the Under Secretary for Public Works. As many other substances have been in use by different observers for filling the sewage tanks, Mr. Smail used ordinary sandstone and gravel from the Nepean River. At the Botany Sewage Works an iron tank is used as an experimental filter bed where the initiatory biological process is commenced. This tank is provided with a false perforated bottom, upon which the pebbles or stones rest, the tank being filled with crude sewage and the fermentation process allowed to proceed for four hours, the liquid then passes into the filters, of which there are two—one filled with fragments of coke, the other charged with small pieces of coal ; the tanks of coal and coke are so arranged that either one may be used at will, thereby testing the relative merits of each kind of material. The effluent is then run on toa bed of lucerne and domestic vegetables, whereby the manurial value can at once be estimated and practically put to use. One thing is thus proved, that whereas crude sewage soon clogs the land and renders the soil ‘ sewage sick,’ the effluent acts at once as a fertiliser, and a luxuriant crop of lucerne or vegetables is produced. The cause is not far to seek, for the effluent is rich in nitrates and ammonia, both compounds readily appropriated by the growing crops. The crude sewage has the following com- position on analysis. Mean of twenty-four samples taken every hour, 18-19 April, 1900 :— Total solids... a, ... 96 Parts per 100,000 Chlorine et cee mo LD ‘5 Free ammonia ... Bs. Toe baa fs m Albuminoid ammonia ... a we 45 \ Oxygen absorbed in four hours 5 ae va Nitrous nitrogen ue pe tOr2 53 35 Nitric nitrogen... 0 35 54 32 WILLIAM M. HAMLET. Composition of effluent from Coke Tank, Botany Sewage Farm (Scott-Moncrieff.) Mean of twenty-four samples taken every hour 18 and 19 April, 1900, corresponding in point of time with the entry of the crude sewage— Total solids... ae ... 44 parts per 100,000 Chlorine Es ar ho ie Bo 7 aI Free Ammonia... sie ee: ks ‘ Albuminoid ammonia ... sin OS a by Oxygen absorbed in four hours 1:5 i 7 Nitrous nitrogen abe ea Ot 3 4 Nitric nitrogen... _.... sue 20 -é ~s The purification here effected amounts to eighty-five per cent. based on the changes undergone by the nitrogenous matter, or seventy per cent. if based on the oxygen absorbed in four hours, which compares well with results obtained elsewhere. No sludge results: all the solid matter has undergone the fermentive change, and even such things as feathers, string, paper and banana skins are reduced to the liquid condition. Almost any solid bodies may be used for the packing of the filter beds : such as broken bricks, coke, cinders, clinkers, boulders, pebbles, charcoal, breeze, and even road-metal. I regret that I cannot give the results of puri- fication in tabular form upon a common basis of analysis. Scott- Moncrieff’s result, and the results obtained by Kenwood and Butler, are based on the ratio between the free and albuminoid ammonia, and both are good; while Dr. Clowes, estimates the oxygen absorbed, the percentage of improvement being showed by the following statement :— i (c —6) 100 C K = purification in per cents.; ¢=oxygen absorbed by the crude sewage ; b=oxygen absorbed by the effluent. The figures obtained by Clowes are as follows :— Average raw sewage... ... 5°28 parts per 100,000 Effluent from four-feet bed... 2°49 - Ve » primary six-feet bed 2°64 ss Fe 4 secondary six-feet bed 1°63 Ms iy Effective purification, equals fifty-one per cent. 1 All calculation as to the common chlorine basis is here avoided. ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 33 Another standard, suggested by Rideal, is the ratio between the oxidised and the unoxidised nitrogen. In this matter I feel assured that such confusing methods of comparing results will soon be amended and we shall be able to judge an effluent as we: now judge a potable water. This method of dealing with sewage has been termed a process. of: biolysis ; it may with reason be called the zymolysis of sewage, since the changes are brought about through the agency of fer- mentation. It is, in reality, the natural method of sewage puri- fication subject to control ; I would emphasise the latter phrase— purification subject to control—because, all the processes hitherto. known, have not been kept under control, but have been the ruin both of inventor and capitalist. This method, however, is both rational and natural, and man is but going back to ‘Nature his. dear old nurse,’ who has carried on the process and purified the dejecta of animal life during all these centuries: indeed, were it. otherwise, this world must have become but a huge charnel house. As it is, the micro-organisms of purification and nitrification have full action; antiseptics and disinfectants being wholly superfluous in fermenting the mixture of slops, kitchen waste, storm water” and dejecta, whereby the solids break up and pass into solution, gases being evolved. The liquid is then allowed to nitrify, with access of atmospheric air resulting in an effluent being produced which may be purified to a degree equal to some drinking waters. The process now being tried at Botany is intermittent, but there. is no reason why it should not, when worked properly, become continuous, requiring very little attention. Here then is a field eminently suited to the energies and capabilities alike of the chemist and the engineer; here also lies. the explanation of the reason why sewage farms were failures and could not be other than failures. Finally we have the end in view with regard to the disposal of city sewage, for if we must have the sewage carried out of our dwellings by the aid of a current of. water, and I admit it to be the easiest method for populous. centres, although not the easiest in country houses where, I still. C—May 2, 1900. 34 WILLIAM M. HAMLET. think, dry earth will have a long reign, then the zymolysis of sewage will become the only rational mode of solving, what has hitherto been a difficult and a costly problem. Let me in con- ’ clusion ask those amongst us here in Australia who are possessed 4 of wealth, leisure and qualifications, to lend their aid in the investi- gation of problems such as these. Original work is still needed, and it should be done by those who are unhampered by official routine, and duties that absorb the whole of their time and energy. EPILOGUE. Time was when this earth was but a crustless mass—a reeking nucleus of vortex motion. -Alons after, Herculean Gravity pulls the molecules together making for density, then comes cohesion, chemic combination and crystallisation, with life-giving Nitrogen, Oxygen, Carbon and the rest. There pass long ages of Geologic Twilight, and Life dawns— ‘Upon the firm opacious globe Of this round world, From Chaos and th’inroad of Darkness old.’ Man is evolved—product of organism and environment—attuned to the music of the spheres to dominate the world, who, finding gold to be a changeless object of beauty and his changeful life but of short duration, looks out about him, searching, first for a Stone, that may turn all the baser metals into precious gold, and then, for an Elixir that shall prolong his earth-life indetinitely— ‘A tincture Of force to flush old age with youth, or breed Gold, or imprison moonbeams till they change To opal shafts.’ Many centuries of fruitless toil are consumed in this pursuit ; and the alchemist, as he is called, finds out some things that were really useful for ends of lesser ambition, and so, based on these results, are laid the foundations of Medicine and of Chemistry. Skipping over the centuries—passing by the Medizval A ges—and calmly surveying our own times, we are beset by the problem of the concentration of peoples in cities, nay, we are compelled to concern ourselves, not so much in providing food for these populous ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 35 centres, that is a problem that will assert itself later on; as in dealing with the excretory products from dwellers in towns; a problem over which vast sums of money, and numberless lives have been wasted. Thus having learned by patient toil and tribulation, some lessons from ‘Immortal Nature’s ageless harmony ’ our studies lead us away from the Alchemy of Antiquity and we are confronted with those problems of Sanitation and the Public Health that call for prompt solution. With what success one of these problems shows promise of speedy and satisfactory treatment it has been my pleasure to indicate. 36 G. H. KNIBBS. On THE RELATION, in DETERMINING toe VOLUMES or SOLIDS, WHos& PARALLEL TRANSVERSE SECTIONS ARE n° FUNCTIONS OF THEIR POSITION ON |THE AXIS, BETWEEN THE NUMBER, POSITION, AND COEFFICIENTS OF THE SECTIONS, AND THE (POSITIVE) INDICES OF THE FUNCTIONS. By G. H. Kniss, F.R.A.8., Lecturer in Surveying, University of Sydney. [Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, June 6, 1900. | . Problem defined. . General relation between indices, number and position of sections, and weight-coefficients. . Determination of the ratio of the m+1 weight-coefficients, when the number m of indices is one less than the number of values of the variable. . Number of indices greater than the number of values of the variable, diminished by unity. . Number of indices less than the number of values of the variable, diminished by unity. . Determination of the n—k=m weights. . Position of a single section. . Positions of two sections. . Limiting positions of two symmetrically situated sections. Two symmetrically situated sections and their conjugate indices. . Asymmetrical positions of two sections. . Three symmetrical sections, viz.,a middle and the terminal sections. . A middle section, and two other sections equidistant therefrom, all of equal weight. . Two terminal and one intermediate section. . General result of the method of finite differences. . General theory of symmetrically situated sections with sym- metrical weight-coefficients. . Examples of the application of the general formula. . The number of indices satisfied by a given number of symmetrical sections. . Manifold infinity of possible formule with symmetrical sections. VOLUMES OF SOLIDS AS RELATED TO TRANSVERSE SECTIONS. 37 1, Problem defined.—If a quantity 4,=/(z) be expressed by the equation A,=A+ B+ C2'+ Dat + ete............ (a); in which let us suppose the constants A, B, C, etc., have any finite value positive or negative including zero, and the indices Pp, g, and 7, etc., are in ascending order of magnitude and positive,? the integral op ae c Pere) oP 4+ —_ 244 ete Daal Gt will represent an area included between the curve (1), the axis z, and the limiting ordinates, z, and z, say, provided A, represents an ordinate: and similarly it will represent a volwme should that function denote the area of wy planes at right angles to the z axis. The volume will of course be that included between the parallel terminal planes, intersecting the axis at the limits of the variable, and the surface formed by the boundary of one of these, considered as generator, moving along the z axis at right angles thereto, and changing its area in terms of the function. Since the origin of z and the linear scale of the unit by which it is measured do not affect the degree, but merely alter the con- stants of the above expressions, viz. (1) and (2), these may be regarded as quite general in form. A may consequently be con- ceived as the ordinate, or as the area, for z=0, and V correspon- ingly as the area or the volume for z=1; provided that the limits of the integral be 0 and 1, and the constants be suitably determined. Hence, subject to the restriction defined, unity may be substituted throughout for the quantities z, 2”, 24, etc., in (2). Let a, 6, c, ete., represent any proper fractions in ascending order of magnitude; and a, f, y etc. any series of weight-coeffici- ents” to be multiplied into the values of the function, for values of z equal to those fractions; and for brevity let the sum of the 1 Negative indices give a series of hyperbolas if A, be regarded as an ordinate, the asymptotes being the axis z and the ordinate forz=0. We consider only the positive indices, that is the parabolas. 2 We shall call these ‘ weight-coefficients’ because they express the relative importance of the sections. 38 G. H. KNIBBS. coefficients be denoted by o: 1.¢. let a 1,if P= wow, p=. P Hence obviously e = _? =m andthe reciprocal Toysis & 0, that isa Jz loge p p = Ro | MW ~~ o . 7 44 G. H. KNIBBS. to solve. If, for particular values of p and q, identical values for a and also for 6 can be derived, they will mark points on the z axis satisfying both equations ; and the mean of the values of the function at these points will be the mean of all values of the function (19) from 0 to 1.’ We consider first values symmetrically situated with respect to the middle point on the axis. Put therefore a=4t—€and b=3+€ oe. (21) so that a+6=1; then expanding (20) and dividing by 2, _ 1 Pp) 2 pp-D(p-2)(p-3) ¢ Be 3 (a? +6?) = Sree hae ia ae &+ 4+ ete. “Saree p of course having any positive value whatever. If be fractional the series is infinite but convergent, since both the coeflicients and the powers of €, € being a proper fraction, are convergent. If p be integral the series is finite, having p/2 terms in €, if » be even; or (p —1)/2 if p be odd. Or again, writing 6=1-—-a, expanding, and dividing by - we have, when 7 is odd, i a ss Petia ase agit, 2 aa (23), 2 3 | p(p + 1) and when p is even ae = ee) D) = PoE gy POD) pet = ae 2 | 3! p php that is, the equation for any even integer is of the same degree as that for the odd integer next above it, as is obvious also from (22). Since also if p be 1, € or a may have any value from 0 to 3, it is at once evident that two equations can be simultaneously satisfied as long as the index of one is unity. Therefore Prop. (¢). If one of the positive indices in the original function be unity, then always two points on the axis, symmetrically situated with respect to its centre, may be taken, so that the mean of the values of the function at those points, will be the mean value of the . Junction. In other words a “two-term formula” will always apply in such a case.} 1 This result was obtained for prismoidal solids, in which the sectional area is a quadric function of the z coordinate (i.e. p=1, q=2) by Echols, Annals of Mathematics 1894; I have not, however, seen his article. See . also, “ Prismoidal Formula and Earthwork,” by T. U. Taylor, 1898— Wiley and Sons, New York. VOLUMES OF SOLIDS AS RELATED TO TRANSVERSE SECTIONS. 45 The following computed values of a are shewn by Curve No. 2, Fig. 1, on which they are indicated by dots. Fig. 1. pot ae oo on woe H rat G247\ i eee Abscisse =D ‘ex vais oe Pp Curve 1.—The ordinates indicate the distance from the initial line or plane at right angles to the axis, to the point thereon where the line or plane has a mean value corresponding to the index p; the total length of the axis being considered as unity. Curve 2.—Graph of the function aP — (1—a)P — 2/(p+1)=0; p being the independent and athe dependent variable: a will be the distance from the terminals of the axis of two lines or planes satisfying the corres- ponding indices, which constitute the abscisse of the graph. Curve 4 —Middle and terminal sections, the indices 2 and 4 being made conjugate by suitable coefficients. Curve 5.—Shewing the relation between index and the position of an intermediate section, when it and the terminal sections have equal weight. 9. Limiting positions of two symmetrically situated sections.— Let a=f(p), in which gp, or w in (5), is to be regarded as the inde- pendent variable; then for symmetrically situated sections, a real of and positive value for a may be found by suitable methods’ from 1 For very large values of p, we may put, at any rate for a first approximation, 2 Bias 461 ae i= og ery 46 G. H. KNIBBS. the equation D Pp |= P= eee Vee) pt+l Restricting the consideration to real positive values between 0 and 4 it will be found that for p= 1/o ,7 a=0'1613782; forp=o, a=0; while for p=1, a may have any value from 0 to4; but for all other positive values of p, the ordinates a corresponding to the abscisse p are terminated by a continuous curve, the values for p=0 and p=1 being respectively about 0:1613782 and 0:1997088, and for p= about 2471 reaching a maximum of about 0:2123179. II.— Positions of two symmetrically situated sections.® Index. a Index. a Index. a ‘00 “VOlaneo, 2°45 -2123160 6 ‘1880587 ‘10 1674245 2°46 lie 7 ‘1796675 25 1752683 2°47 ‘2123178 8 13934 1X0) °1857300 2°471 Pa 1) 9 "1637491 “0 ‘1974990 2°48 -2123176 10 “5670 1:00 -1997088° 2°49 2123164 ll 1503130 1:00 also 0 to 0'5 2°50 "2123147 12 "1444266 1:10 2016800 2°60 ‘2122537 13 1390213 1:50 -2075308 3°00 "21132498 14 "1340444 2:00 ‘2113249° 4 -20561927 15 "1294440 2:40 PPA D OT4029" oO ‘0000000 Nott.— b=1-a. log—!w denoting the number of which @ is the logarithm. Since a is numerically always less than 0:3, the powers of a are rapidly convergent. For p=9'5, a is about 0°16; hence to 7 places of figures, and for p equal 10 or more, a? = 0: therefore bP = 2/(pt+1), from which the above formula is derived. Again, for exceedingly small values of p, bP will be much nearer unity than a?; hence we may commence the approximation by assuming that a? = 2/(p+1)—1, and put afterwards the deduced value of bP in the place of unity, Other cases may be calculated by (22) or (28), or by such methods as will readily suggest themselves to computers. 2 Strictly for p =0, a is indeterminate ; but as p becomes very small a approaches the limiting value given. 3 The seventh place of figures is generally uncertain. 4a° = 1 and a may have any value whatsoever: in itself it is therefore indeterminate. In the case considered however it really has a definite limit which may be found as follows :— 2 3 a? + (1-a)? = aP + 1-pa[1 + (1 —p) + (p+ 4) tete.] = 2(1-p tp? -) VOLUMES OF SOLIDS AS RELATED TO TRANSVERSE SECTIONS. 47 From these results, and the figure representing them, it is evident that :— Prop. (f). Zwo symmetrically situated sections cannot be at a greater distance from the terminals of the axis than about 02123179, the length of the axis being regarded as unity; at that distance p and q are respectively 1 and about 2-471, and no other values can be satisfied. Since the curve in Fig. | is intersected by the ordinate for p= 1, at the distance of about 0:1997088 from the axis of abscissx; for values of a greater than this, and less than the maximum, two indices greater than unity can be satisfied, together with unity Rejecting the second and higher powers of p, since it is extremely small, as inappreciable, and transposing we have aP = 1-p(2-a a — etc.) Taking logarithms, and again rejecting the 2nd and higher powers of p Ola eS Sle as - © ~ ete.) Dividing both sides by - p, applying the operator log—', transposing, and dividing the numerator and denominator of the left hand number by a, wehave 1i4+a+a%+ete. = log, 2=logy 2 @ =7-3890561 p. being pee seduliss of common logarithms; so that + +a +a? + ete. = 63890561 a from which ais found by suitable methods of approximation to be :1613782. 5 In general a is of course indeterminate and may have any value whatsoever. The curve studied has a limiting value for p=1, which may ‘be found by putting 1 + A for the index. Rejecting powers of h gi th + ptth _ 4 (1+ hloga) + b(1 + hlog b) = 2/(2+h) = 1-4h ‘from which after putting 6 = 1- a, remembering that log (l-a) = ily Be Oh of = eto ee dividing by ah, and arranging the terms in the order of their numerical magnitude, we obtain BU PE arena fe ast eee Ge Sa ae 2a 2 23) 34 n (n+1) from which by suitable methods the limiting value of a may be found. The convergency of the first three terms is very slight, consequently in “practical computation it is advantageous to tabulate the sum of these -three at least. See § 16 hereinafter. 6 Both roots arez +% V3. 73+ V(v5%,-4). 83+ V(v,5,-3). 2 ar GO, = 1 48 G. H. KNIBBS. itself; while for less values of a one index will be less than unity and the other greater than 4°7345; inasmuch as this ordinate meets the curve again for a value of p of about that amount. Consequently :— Prop. (g). Ifthe symmetrically situated sections be at a distance of 0:1997088 from the terminals of the axis, considered as of unit length, only two indices can be satisfied viz., p=1 and q=4'°7345. 10. Two symmetrically situated sections and their conjugate indices.—In Fig. 1, any line drawn parallel to the axis of abscissze at a less distance than 0°2123179 cuts it in two points, and cuts also the heavy vertical line, viz. the ordinate for p=1. For any definite value of a let the abscissz of the intersections be called conjugate. Then the limits are as follows :— a>0:1997088 ) Lesser { 1 to 2:471; Greater ( 2:471 to 4:7345 a <0:1997088 index )) Oto 19 index | 4:7345 to w» It happens that the indices 2 and 3 are conjugate to one another, a having the value in each case 4—4.,/3, or 0:2113249, conse- quently a “two-term formula” applies not only to the prismoid and prismatoid, but to figures and solids whose ordinates or right- sections are cubic functions of the distances along the axes. Or Prop. (h). If two symmetrically situated sections be at a dis- tance of not more than 0:2123179 from the terminals of the axis, considered as of wnit length, then in general the index 1 together with two conjugate indices, one greater, and one less than 2-471 can be satisfied. ' Let w and v denote the conjugate indices and A, and B, the corresponding symmetrical positions, then for the function A,=A+Bz+ C2"+ De we shall have V Se (Ani Bee aeceetrs (24), And further as a special case :— Prop. (i). Iftwo sections be taken 0:2113249 from the terminals of the axis, considered as of unit length, then the indices satisfied will be 1, 2, and 3. That is to say a symmetrical two-term formula applies to a solid whose right-sectional area is a cubic VOLUMES OF SULIDS AS RELATED TO TRANSVERSE SECTIONS. 49 function of the distance along its axis; the same is true also for an area, where the ordinate is similarly a cubic function.’ If A, and B, denote the values of the ordinates or sections at 0):2113249 and 0-7886751, then whenever A,=A+B24+ 02+ De we shall have Sav ra! epee 25) leslie Ade (25). 11. Asymmetrical positions of two sections.—Since the number of fractions is the same as the number of indices they cannot both be arbitrarily taken: Prop. (a)§ 2. Let the weight unity be assigned to the section at a; so that the weight of that at 6d will be relative thereto: we shall then have from (5) a? + BbP= we , and a+ B= =F SRSA (26) so that the condition to be satisfied is (1 +p) (a? + B6") = (1 +q) (a2 + fb4) ......... (27); as might be anticipated this does not lead to simple relations. The only cases that appear to be worth consideration are a=0, and 6=1, the former involving the determination of the value and weight of 6: the latter the value of a and weight either of aor 6. If a=0, then its powers are also zero, putting its weight =1, we have at once from (27) ae 1+ Ey ? ; or logarithmically log 6 _ log(1 +p) — log(1 +9) (28) 1 55 q Op p and when 0 is obtained 1 1 b= Paes.) TOCA a eET Woke ae (29) Putting A, for the initial ordinate or area, and 54, for that at a the formula for the area or volume will be yaa 58 (Lot BB) Sonne (30) 1 + and the integral solutions up to the fourth power are contained © in the table hereunder :— I1I.—Position and coefficients of second section, the first berny the wnitial section. 1 A less general proof of this is given by 'l’. U. Taylor, op. cit., pp. 99 — 100 D—June 6, 1900. 50 G. H. KNIBBS. Indices. °= Distance along 4 _ weight-coefficients of B, General _ 1 axis. coefficient (1 + B) 2 1 4% or 0:56250000 8 or 80000000 0-1111111 1 2 2 ,, 06666667 3 » 20000000 0:2500000 1 3 4¥2,, 0°7071068 l+V72 ~ ,, 2°4142136 0:2928933 1 4 y%,, 07368063 1/(22-1),, 21114303 0:3213952 2 3 3 ,, 0:7500000 1 ,, 1:4545455 0-4074074 ee Onto oon 14 », 1:2500000 0:4444444 3 4 4 ,, 0:8000000 a » 0°9541985: O-5117187 These, and the more extended results in Table IIIa., are the 6 curves shewn on Fig. 2. The results of Table I. are also included for completeness: these last correspond to p= 0. TITa.—Position of second section the first being the initial section. Indices q. Index p 0 1 2 5) + 5 6 Hf 0 -3679 5000 5774 6300 6687 6988 7230 7430 1! ‘5000 6066 6667 7071 7368 7598 7784 7937 2 5774 6667 7165 7500 7746 7937 8091 8219 3 ‘6300 7071 7500 7788 8000 8165 8298 8409 Indices q. Index p 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 0 ‘7598 7743 7868 -7978 8076 8163 8241s ssaI2 1 8067 8178 8274 8360 8435 8503 8564 8620 2 8327 8420 8501. 8572 8636 8693 8745 8792 3 8503 8584 8654 8717 8773 8823 8868 8909 The above results are of course decimal throughout. If on the other hand we make bd = | and determine a, the relations are less simple. As before the weight-coefficient of the latter, viz. a, may conveniently be taken as unity. This gives then, instead of (26) 1 1+£, Band ai+ B= + P au sand a-Si fee ; glee l+p l+gq fe) consequently a can be found only by solving the equation op PUL 2) ek ee (32) q(1 + p) q(l +p) and then f from B= =} 1-(+p)ar f= 7 1 1-(1 +a} hee (33) VOLUMES OF SOLIDS AS RELATED TO TRANSVERSE SECTIONS. 51 The integral solutions up to the third power inclusive are exhibited in Table IV. hereunder. IV.—Positions of first section, the second being the terminal section. Indices. a=Distance along 6 = coefficient General coefficient p 4g axis. of Bo 1/(1+ 8) + 1 0-2500000 0:5000000 ‘6666667 1 eee. 03353000 0:3333333 0:7500000 hee 0:3660254 0:2679492 0:7886751 ee) 0:4215352 0°1692577 0:8552434 Dae nA 0:4472136 0:2000000 0:8333333 The formula for volume or area will of course be v= el BA Talg te /6)8)eoaeease (34) 1+ 6 A, denoting the area or ordinate at a, and 4, that at the terminal. For p=1, g=2, we may instead of (30) and (34) write V=12(A,+ 3B) =42 (3Az+ Bp)......... (25)? A, denoting as before the initial section or ordinate: this reciprocal symmetry does not extend to other cases. Some of the formule of III. and IV. may be expressed in the following forms :— Ps 7 — 1 :— a + 8B, ,) AN ace 35a)? ek: + BB ) oe p=2 4; q>= fi V=ea(dA | i BS } in which the suffix indicates the distance along the axis from the aAend. By means of (28), (29), (32) and (33) it is easy to develope _ similar expressions to these last ; they would however probably be of no practical moment, and are not here further considered. 1 The equations equal to zero, and the roots are as follows :— p-q a Equation. 8 Equation. Values of aand 8 1.2 a?-4a+4=0; g=1-20 =4(1-30%);a=4; @=3 123 ge ee ot 40 4") a=4(V3-1); Meant ale 2.3 a°—$a?+3=0; 8=3 1-8a’) =3(1—4a9); a =1,(1+ V3); B= ase (77 - 8V83) 2 Kinkelin’s formula.—Grunert’s Archiv., Bd. xxx1x., pp. 181-186, 1862. 3 Puller’s formule. See ‘ Erweiterung der Prismatoidformel.’— Zeit. fiir Vermess., Bd. xxix., p. 36, January 1900. 52 G. H. KNIBBS. 12. Three symmetrical sections. viz. a middle and the terminal sectuons.—Turning to the case of three sections, obviously the simplest possible condition in regard to their position is,—a=0, b=4,c=1. If further we make their weights symmetrical, a and y may each be unity, and then we can determine f: this would be the simplest possible solution in regard to the weight-coefficients. Equation (5) thus becomes, keeping the fraction 6 general, l —1 pw-—) +255 =0 mane (36) from which if b= 43, — »)? 9 ee ga USP ee (37) (l+p)—2? 2? —(p% 1) from which values of 6 may be readily computed. The following table, giving the values for.a considerable range; is the basis from which the curve £ in Fig 2 is plotted. The general coefficient will be 1/(2 + 8), see (38) hereinafter. V.— Weight-coefficients for the middle-section, the weights of initial and terminal sections being unity. Index 1 Index J Index 1 Pp p 2+) p B (2+) p p (2+ 8) 00 O 1:01 5:1494 +13987 4 4:3636 -15714 0-1 31°884* -02951 1:10 4:9224 +14446 5 4:9931 -14444 0-2 17-913* -05022 1:2 47176 +14886 5-382 5-174 -13939 0-3 12:516* 06889 1:3 45517 +15263 6 5-6140 13134 0-4 98358 08449 15 4:3060 -15858 7 6:4exact -11905° 0-5 8-24261-09763 2:0 4:exact (166672 8 7:2461 -10815 0-6 7:1934 :10877 2:40 3-9346 -16850 9 81594 -09843 0:7 64554 -11827 2-45 3-9337 -16853 10 9-0977 -09010 0-8 5:9122 -12639 2:458 3:93364 -16853 11 10-0589 -08292 0:9 5:4993 13334 25 3-9341 -16852 12 11-0350 -07671 0:99 5:2063 -13877 2 39387-16839 13 12-0205 :07133 6 1:00 5:1741° 13939 3:0 4:exact :16667° 14 13-0119 -06661’ Since 8 may have any value whatever for p=1, any value of 6 greater than 3:933647 will satisfy the index unity together with two conjugate indices, as is evident from the 6 curve on Fig. 2. Consequently 14+8V2; 2 Really indeterminate, the curve crosses at this ordinate ; 3 Exactly +; + More exactly 3933647; 5 Exactly 1; 6 Exactly 42; 7 For p=, B=na-1. VOLUMES OF SOLIDS AS RELATED TO TRANSVERSE SECTIONS. 53 100; descr ee ee un ur EEE eae esis teceeetes teeta i — t HH : T HH ay 1m ng ; . T o rn i ot ras eT to 3 Sao besee p eee Hy o i mast ee] Soe Peo ease TK oF H 4 paaen b Seeceeeer: ane eees i r 1 oot 4}= | 2458 (2 Curve 5382 Ordinates -B ; Abscissa = 2, & Curve Ord.:d; Absc.» b Curves.—The ordinates denote the distance of the second section of of the axis from the first and initial section—the whole axis being unity— corresponding to pairs of values of the index, one series of values being the abscisse. 7 _B Curve.—The ordinates shew the weight that must be assigned to a middle section, that of the terminal sections being unity, in order to satisfy any index and its conjugate. Prop. (j). Two terminal sections and a middle section will on general satisfy the index wnity together with two conjugate indices the one greater and the other less than 2-458; these indices are dependent upon the coefficient assigned to the middle section, which coefficient can in no case be less than 3:-988647, viz., than its value at the critical index 2-458. The value 1] is conjugate to 5-382, corresponding to the coefficient f=5:174; consequently at that point p= 1, g=5°382 and no other index can be satisfied. Again if p=1and q=2°'458, the coetiicient B will be 3:933647 and no other values can be satisfied. Again 2 and 3 are conjugate indices, and correspond to the weight- coefficient 4: therefore so q 54 G. H. KNIBBS. Prop. (k). If the coefficient 4 be assigned to the middle section, the indices satisfied will be 1, 2 and 3, and none other. | The formula for volume or area in the case above considered, and when the original function A,=A + Bz + C2 + Dz, u and v as before being conjugate ; is :— 1 V= om B. (Ay + BB, + Op)eees (38) the subscript 0 denoting terminal sections, and ma middle section. 13. A middle section, and two other sections equidistant there- from, all of equal weight.—In this case, if each section have unit weight, (5) reduces to 3 1 Ao) ra pp trees: (39) which is clearly analogous to (236) § 9, and may similarly to (22) be written P(p—1) 2, plp— 1) (p— 2) (p— 3) 31 aS © re ors BP Clo pak | oe By these equations the results in Table VI. are calculated ; the curve is shewn in Fig. 2, Curve 3. VI.—Position of two sections equidistant from a middle-section. Index. Index. Index. a a a *1121500' 3 ‘1464466? 10 °1221566 "25 1221114 + 1439328 ll ‘1185688 5, 1295311 5 "1406342 12 "1151021 l "1391506? 6 1370589 13 1117833 1°5 "1442089 7 "1333554 14 1086176 2 "1464466° 8 12959804 15 ‘1056064 2449 "1469624 9 1258477 o) ‘0000000 Note.—b = 4; ¢c=1-a. The coefficient of each section is unity. 1 The limiting value may be found as previously shewn: the equation s 2 n 1S jog, a-—- - “ -.,. =“ — ete, = = 3 + log, 9 = Se aeosane n Mt 2 2 The equation for the limiting value is :— Qa an —~q¢+ 2.+2— + ,,. b= ete. = 21 2—2 = — ‘4034264 O10 Re Gi Oe oe org Goin 8 >? Bee See § 16 hereinafter for a fuller consideration of these limits. 3 Both roots, that is for p= 2 and p=8 are the same, viz., a=4—4 v2. 4 For seven places of figures, we may, after p=7, put a? =O, conse- quently bP = 3/(p +1) -1/2?. VOLUMES OF SOLIDS AS RELATED TO TRANSVERSE SECTIONS. 55 From the nature of the curve we see that, in general, three indices may be satisfied, when a middle and two other sections equidistant therefrom are taken, each having equal weight, two of these indices however will be conjugate. For the same index- values the sections are nearer to the terminals than in the case of two symmetrically situated sections. The result may be summed up in the two following propositions :— Prop. (l.) When a middle section and two others equidistant therefrom, all of equal weight are taken, the latter can never be at a greater distance than ‘1469624 of the length of the axis from its . terminals: at that distance the only indices that can be satisfied are 1 and about 2-449. Remembering that the indices 2 and 3 are conjugate, we have also the second proposition :— - Prop. (m.) For sections nearer the terminals of the axis than this limiting value, the index 1 and two conjugate indices may be satisfied the one greater and the other less than 2°449; and if the distances from the terminals be -1464466 the conjugate indrces satisfied, together with 1, will be 2 und 3. The formula for area of volume satisfying the function A,=A+ Be+ Cz + Dz’, u and v being conjugate, is Vics VeitAn a Bae Ole as: (41). 14. T'wo terminal sections and one intermediate section.—Hqua- tion (5) in this case reduces to The values of a, 8 and y are all at our disposal, hence there is a three-fold infinity of solutions for 6”. Since the solution loses no generality by making £6 unity, inasmuch asa and y merely become the ratios of the weight-coefficients of the terminal sections to the intermediate section, which is all that is required, the above equation becomes simply l+a—py [ae ne Oe LI e@eeeseeoeeees bP = ie (42a) 56 G. H. KNIBBS. which it is sometimes convenient to put in the form bo (L + p) + py = li tral eee (426,7 Thus the solution for 6 is log b= | log (1 + a-py)-—log (1 + p) 1 = =| log (1 +a — py) — log (1+@q) ; = etc...(43) In (42) and (43) the only solutions of utility are those which give values of 6 lying between 0 and 1: it is moreover convenient to employ only positive values of a and y. Hence the conditions of limitation are, ( being unity, —1<(a—py)
, viz., those satistying p = 2,q = 4 in Table VII.,
when 6 = i: if then we calculate the values for b corresponding
to different values of p, we shall find that for p = +2; 6 = i, and
for p = 526 = 0. Between p = 2 and p= 4 6 is greater than 4;
and between p = about # and p = 2 less than 4 :—see Curve 4,
on Fig. 1, which exhibits the whole curve between the indicated
limits. Hence, with the coefficients adopted, the function
A,=A+ Bo+ Cz’ + Dz
would have been satisfied, wu, v, and w being the three conjugate
indices.
From the figure-referred to—Curve 4, Fig. 1—it is evident
that w and v, or v and w, may become identical for a particular
value of b: so also for particular weights the whole three may
become identical. If, for example the coefficient be unity for each
of the three sections, and the position of 0 is alone to be deter-
mined, we shall have from (5) or from (42a)
Since 6 can neither be greater than unity, nor negative, the limits
of p are 4 and 2, the corresponding limits of b being 1 and 0;
hence no values outside these can be satisfied. Further since within
the limits there is one and only one value of 6 corresponding to
any definite value of p, and vice versa, only one value of p can be
satisfied. Hence the function in such a case is reduced to
Ape Agee wai
and the formula for area or volume to
ert 27 HN tects Jo atte ONG) Ne Seen (45)
The following table contains sixteen values of b between the
indicated limits. |
58 G. H. KNIBBS.
VIII.—T'wo terminal sections and one intermediate, all of equal
weight.
Index. b Index. b Index. b Index. b
‘5 —-1:00000 9 54484 13 £:40049 7 #£«-27459
6 80047 1:0 -50000 14 #«:37150 \1730ReezaGan
aif 68165 1:1 °46289 1:5 +34200 ~ S-OReeee ees
8 60240 1:2 :43042 1:6 -:31041 2:0 -00000
The curve is shewn in Fig. 1, see Curve 5.
The general results of this section may be summed up as follows :
Prop. (n). When the weights of three sections, viz., two terminal
and one intermediate in a definite position, are deduced se as to
satisfy two indices, a third conjugate to these will in general be
satisfied: two of the indices, or all three, may, with particular
values for the weight-coeficients, become identical.
15. General result of the method of finite differences.—If the
axis z be divided into n equal parts, and sections be taken at the
terminals and points of section, the areas of these may be repre-
sented by the n + 1 ordinates thereat. It is always possible to
draw through the n+ 1 ordinate-terminals a curve of the nth
degree, so that if the order of the surface is really representéd by
that curve, the indices in the original function viz., p, g, 7, etc.,
are merely 1, 2, 3,...m.
By the calculus of finite differences it is shewn that the volume
or the area, may be readily expressed in terms of the first rank of
differences, and n, the number of parts into which the axis is
divided. To a curve or surface of the sixth degree the equation
is, y denoting the first ordinate, and A'y, A‘y, etc., the first rank
of differences,
nythn? A'y+;(2n* — 3n?) Alyt se(n* - 4n* +407 Ay
Va 2 +745(6n° — 45n* — 110n* — 90n* Ary
~~ na \ + rede (2Qn® — 24n® + 105n* — 200n? + 14407) Ary
+ soto (127 —210n® + 1428n° — 4725n* + T672n*
— 5040n’) Avy + ete.
This may be recast in terms of the ordinates themselves by observing
(46)
that the coefficients thereof, connecting them with the differences,
follow the law of binomial development ; that is,
VOLUMES OF SOLIDS AS RELATED TO TRANSVERSE SECTIONS. 59
n(n — 1)
2!
so that we have only to insert the proper line of coefficients from
A'y = Yn = NY, 1 any Ue —€@C, .....0- (47)
Pascal’s triangle and reduce. In this way the following formule
are obtained.
IX.— Weight-coefficients with terminal and equidistant inter-
mediate sections.
42(A,+B,) =42(A,+4B,4+C,) =} 2 (A, pCi.)
=o52(7,+382B+120+32D+7£,)
= gts 2(194,+75B8+500+50D+75#+ 19F,)
= gin (414,4+216B4+270 + 272D+27F +216 F+41G,)
The deduction of formule for volumes or areas by this method
does not fully reveal the sphere of their legitimate application.
For example the first formula in IX. is legitimate only when the
sectional-area linearly changes with the distance along the axis :
the second formula is deduced on the necessary assumption that
the sectional area is a quadratic function of the axial distance ;
it proves to be absolutely correct also when that. area is a cubic
function. The third formula is derived by assuming that the
sectional area function is cubic: it is a good approximation, even
when the function is quartic, but is not exact, since it involves an
|< Weddle’s”” rule is merely an approximation. The exact expression
in difference-terms is
V=2(yt+ 8A¥y + 43 Ally + 4 Atily =f 41 Aivy + TN Vy + AA)
If, in this, the coefficient #2, be changed into #2,, and if moreover the
proper coefficient of D is diminished by ,*2,, that is if 22° be put for 272
in the above formula, then the formula may be simplified into Weddle’s.
approximation, and written
V=352(4.+ 5B+ C+5D+ E+ 5F+ G)
The statement in the Encyclopedia Britannica 9° Hdit. xv1., 22, would
be less liable to mislead if it read ‘“‘approximate formula for the area”’
instead of ‘‘ formula for the approximate area.” The statement that the
formula is derived in the manner indicated is moreover inaccurate. It is
obtained by a purely arbitrary proceeding. Prof. Johnson’s statement,
in his ‘‘ Theory and Practice of Surveying,” p. 610 Edit. 1887, that, if the
coefficient 43, be changed in the manner indicated, Weddle’s rule may be
obtained, is also not accurate. The expression is not exact even when
the sixth difference is zero.
60 G. H. KNIBBS.
alteration of 3+5 in the coefficient’ of z* We pass on therefore
to the consideration of the general theory of symmetrical and
symmetrically weighted sections.
16. General theory of symmetrically situated sections with
symmetrical weight-coefficients.—The general theory of the relation
of indices, sectional positions, and weight-coefficients is sufficiently
indicated in § 2 —§ 6: it is proposed now to consider only the case
where both the weight-coefficients and the sections are symmetri-
cally disposed with reference to the middle-section, the first and
last being at the terminals of the axis. Equation (5) then takes
the following form, viz.
xe (YB seal
On Aes + ee PEM Gs (48)
nm being the number of parts into which the axis is divided, so
that including the terminals there are n+ 1 sectional points.
When vn is odd, & has the values 0, 1, 2,...4 (7-1), that is there
are $(n + 1) terms: but when even, 0, 1, 2...4 n, that is there are
4(n+ 2) terms. It is important to remember in the latter case
that the final value of the weight-coefficient is one-half its proper
value ; that is the coefficient to be applied to the middle section
is double that in the formula: in other words if «’ be the final
weight-coefficient in the formula, 2x’ will be the proper weight-
coetiicient.
From (48) it is obvious, as we have before seen, that for p=0
and p = 1, the equation is satisfied, whatever the values of x, & or n,
since in either case each terin is zero, and the expression becomes
simply a0 + 60+ etc. = 0. Nevertheless, regarding each term as
a function of p, it is represented by a continuous curve, whose
abscisse are the values of p, and whose ordinates for p=0+ dp
and p=1 + dp are perfectly definite. This we proceed to demon-
strate. Writing either £/n or | —k/n, as K, we have
1 If the coefficient E in the term Ez* is essentially positive it gives a
slight excess in volume or area: the proper coefficient in the expression
of that quantity being 1 Hz°, while the formula gives 11 Hz°. If H be
small the difference ,1, Hz may often be negligible.
VOLUMES OF SOLIDS AS RELATED TO TRANSVERSE SECTIONS. 61
K+ = KP (1 +log Kdp)......... (49);
the logarithm being of course Napierian, we have also
2 2 2dp
= Seely Hy usc ea 50
pt+dp+ 1 p+l ” (p+1) oy
For brevity let the expressions of the type (48), but not multiplied
by weight-coefficients (x), be denoted by (at .2): then remem-
n
bering that
1) k kp
1 eee en (NOs se ste 51
log ( = = z etc (51)
we have from equations (48) to (51),
eee ahi aE a)
aD) ep |. 2 =| loos ee
ee eh 7) lee | ee al
k ke? 2
et CUCM et ee AD er Di
( n 21? ote.) + as fe (2)
which is quite general. If now in passing from p to p + dp the
function F(p.k/n. 2) is continually zero, we must have
SR Ne aa cd k? 2
=e ete.) — — =, (00
4 o, BA me (Oe Dae 3n° ete.) (ei ee)
that is, the quantity in the larger brackets in (52) must be zero.
This last equation determines the values of k/n in terms of p ;
when p =0, it becomes ;—
ree In olon. wnt
and when p= 1 ;—
ape we ike stn 1
i Nn. t
expressions which can readily be transformed so as to suit the
exigencies of computation with respect to convergency etc., and
which are the basis of values already found for such limits. It is
now evident that the graph of the function F(p.k/n. 2)=0 is
of the type shewn by heavy lines on Fig. 1, viz., the two lines
whose abscissz are 0 and 1, and the curve numbered 2. .
When however &/n is constant, and only p is variable, the curve
is of very different form, as may be seen in Fig. 3. In this,
curve 6 is the graph of 2/(p+1); curves 7, 8, and 2 of | (A/n)P
+ (1 —k/n)P} in which the fraction has the values 4, 3, and 4
ie
‘
i
62 G. H. KNIBBS.
respectively. The ordinates are identical for p=0, 1, and oo for
all values of k/n, and since in (48) the coefficient « is multiplied
into the term 2/(p+1) as well as the two other terms, it is evident
that a series of terms of the type (48), satisfying any system of
values of p, will always satisfy also the special values 0, 1 and « .!
It may be remarked in regard to the k/n curves, that if for
certain abscisse, p> 1, their ordinates be greater than those of the
2/(p+1) curve, then for sufficiently large values of p, they will
become equal to the corresponding ordinates of the latter, and
ultimately less than them. Thus the graphs make it obvious that
the differences of the ordinates of the 2/(+1) curve and the
others vary differently with p, excepting, as already indicated for
p=0, 1, and o; and therefore also that, by combining the proper
number of curves, with suitable changes in their parameters, any
number of given indices may be satisfied. It is moreover also
evident, both from algebraic considerations, and from the graphs,
that by properly determining the coefficients, at least as many
different indices may be satisfied, 1 included, as there are terms
in (48). We shall shew later that a larger number may be
satisfied.
When » = 1, that is when there are only terminal sections, p = 0
and 1 only can be satisfied : we have already seen that when n = 2,
that is when there are two terminals and a middle section, the
values p=0, 1, 2 and 3, may be satisfied, the coefficient of the
middle section being 4, The case is instructive: equation (48),
reduced, becomes
5 Sal aN gee at 54
2? —(p +1) ( )
1 For solids »=0 represents a cylinder ; »=Oto 2 conoids, the meridian
curves of which are outwardly concave, at the limit » =2 becoming a cone;
-p=2 to o represent conoids whose meridian curves are convex outwards.
At the limit p= 0, it cannot be said that a real solid is represented.
A,= Bz” is astraight line for z=0 to z=1, coinciding with the axis itself,
at z=1+ ds it becomes an infinite plane at right angles to the axis.
VOLUMES OF SOLIDS AS RELATED TO TRANSVERSE SECTIONS. 63
which, if we make 6 - 2, satisfies these last mentioned values of p.1
This fact, viz., that certain values of the weight-coefficients may
satisfy other indices than those which are used to determine them,
will be found to have a wider applicability than is immediately
evident: in general the indices other than 0 and 1, which are
satisfied by any system of weight-coefficients may be called
conjugate, as hereinbefore.
For brevity let
Pe. = nie | (k)nyP + (nv — bP/n® } z « ke + (n — kp } HE SS(05)
and similarly in regard to Q,, ,, etc.; the capital letter corres-
ponding to that denoting the index, while the subscript k is to be
the same integer as k. Then the equations to be satisfied are
SCIP) = ITD ae 1) (OS aA aes nbs (56)
« having the values a, , y, etc., and the limits for xP being 0 to
4(n+1) when m is odd, and 0 to (n+ 2) when mn is even.
Remembering that the number of sections is independent of the
number of indices in any series, and that the solution does not
lose generality by making a=1, we have from (48) and the last
two equations,
BS (p+1) Py - Qn? } +y{(p+l)P,- QnP i +...+(p FSO oc cce (57)
and similar expressions in which q,Q,,, etc. are substituted for
p,P,,; the number of terms in addition to the last or absolute
term being now the same as the number of weight-coefficients to
be evaluated, viz. 2/2 if m be even, (n—1)/2ifnbeodd. By means
of these last equations, viz. (57), any case can be readily solved.
17. Examples of the application of the general formula.—For
n= 2, that is for a middle and terminal sections, (57) becomes, on
dividing each quantity by 2,
Ge (p= 1) 20 eect (58)
which gives the following series of formulz, remembering that the
coefficient must be 2/3’ as already pointed out.
1 It has already been pointed out in connection with (48) that for even
values of n, the coefficient is half its proper value: (54) is of course one
half of (37). That the values p=0, p=1 hold, may be verified by consider-
ing the limits.
7
64 G. H. KNIBBS.
X.—Integral expressions for volume. three symmetrical sections.
V= - (cd. Cn eae
oO
Index p os a. B y
2 or 3 6 i 4 1
4. 70 det 48 je
5 90 13 64 13
6 434 57 320 57
The index 1 is satisfied with the others and 0 of course: but no
other index : 2 and 3 are conjugate, and as shewn on the f curve
on Fig. 2, the indices conjugate to 4 and 5 lie between 1 and 2,
and those conjugate to 6 to o between | and 0.
If n = 3, (57) becomes
B§(p+1) (1+2?) - 2. 37} +(p—1)3?=0......... (59)
which gives the following values for four sections :—
XI.—Integral expressions for volume: four symmetrical sections.
V= aaa + BB, + yC, + 6Do)
o
Index p o a. B y 6
2or 3 8 il 3 3 i
4 640 er 243 243 (ees
5 60 8 27 27 8
6 9296 1093 3645 3645 1003
The indices 0 and 1 are simultaneously satisfied with any one of
these: 2 and 3 are again conjugate. The indices greater than 3
are conjugate to indices less than 2: the curve (/a being similar
to the 6 curve in Fig. 2. It will be noticed that the four sections
satisfy only a cubic function, the coefficients being 1, 3, 3, 1.
If n=4, (57) becomes
B§(p+1)(1+3) — 2.4? t+! { (p+) 2.2? — 2.4?) +(p — 1)4?=0...(60)
solving which for either p=2, or p=38 gives
yo = 2 = FB se awn (61).
Hence there is a one-fold infinity of solutions, whenever five
symmetrical transverse sections are taken, if the indices are 1, 2
and 3. Thus we may write out such solutions as the following,
in all cases doubling the value of y’ as it is a middle section.
VOLUMES OF SOLIDS AS RELATED TO TRANSVERSE SECTIONS. 65
XIT.—Integral coopressions for volume: five symmetrical sections.
Index p = 1, 2 and 3.
o a B y 3) €
9 i 2 3 2 if
12 1 4 2 4 i
15 I 6 1 6 i
18 I 8 0 8 ll
etc., etc
On solving for p = 4, we find
ye eS Seay [Podonnsnec (62); }
and on combining this solution with (61): and putting y =2y’, the
solution for 6 and y becomes determinate, and for indices at any
rate as far as p=1, 2, 3 and 4,’ we have
B =823 y = 22.
Consequently for those indices the series of coefficients are
GION 4) Ba O2) ya 120 = 32.06 = 7,
as already given in Table IX.
Again solving for p=5, 6 and 7 we find
p=d e = 82 _ ,738_— Be Biaiois' ahs thers ayers (63)
Pg ee Bi (64)
ne te gs. (65)
By combining these results with (61) and (62) we obtain formule
satisfying different indices. For example combining (63) with (61)
the resultant coefficients are again the same; identical results
being given by the solutions for p= 2 or 3and 4, p=2 or 3 and 5,
or again for p=4and 5. Hence the series of weight-coefficients
last given satisfy a guintic function, or the formula |
V= = Ae eB Ne 39D ATH. .66)
is absolutely exact when the original function is
A,=A+ b2+C2+ De+ HaA+ Fe
these indices, viz. 2 to 5 are thus seen to be conjugate for the
indicated coefficients.”
1 It will be seen later that the solution is true also»=5; thatisa
five-section formula is true for a quintic function, the weights being as
shewn.
2'This fact does not appear when the formula is deduced by finite
differences.
E—June 6, 1900.
66 G. H. KNIBBS.
The following table shews the coefficients obtained by combining
in different ways equations (61) to (65).
XIII.—Jntegral expressions for volume, five symmetrical sections.
Indices p o a. or € B or 6 y
1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 90 if 32 12
OU aan 8190 629 2944 1044
iy OS Why 1050 79 384 124
1, 4 , 6 69510 5323 25088 8688
1,4 Pome 9730 729 3084 1104
1, 5 , 6 44730 3389 16384 5184
1 Re 8190 607 3072 " iaaa
1, 6 a 9310 679 3584 784
Still further, if m =5, the general equation (57) becomes
B} (p+1)(1 +4”) = 2.5°L+y {(p+1)(2?+3") = 2.5L + (p — 1)o° = 0 ee
giving the following solutions for y :—
Index 9 = 2or3 0) 4d, eas eee (68)
p=a4 y = Uf + ate Bicceeescee (69)
jes @ Nee |B gocsonsa5dosc (70)
P= 6 Y= tEGee = geese B a (71)
From (68) and (69), (68) and (70), and from (69) and (70) we find
(8 = 43, y = 78, hence these are conjugate indices: (68) and (71)
however give B= 335. Hence wesee that (67) with the indicated
weights satisties only a quintic function, and not a sextic. Hence
if the transverse section of a solid is known to be a quintic function
of the distance along its axis, five sections, that is two terminal,
a middle, and two other equidistant sections are sufficient, and
there is no advantage in taking six sections. Thus the function
being guintic, as before following (66), the volume is exactly given
by the formula in Table IX., V = xix 2 (2p), » denoting any
coefficient and J the corresponding section.
As before, an infinite number of formule can be developed for
p=1, 2 and 3; for example, any of the following series of formule
satisfy a cubic function.
VOLUMES OF SOLIDS AS RELATED TO TRANSVERSE SECTIONS. 67
XIV.—IL ntegral expressions for volume. sia symmetrical sections,
Indices p = 1, 2, and 3.
o aor ¢ B ore y or 6
8
24 1 3
48 1 FS 4
72 1 30 5
96 1 41 6
etc., etc.
So also expressions can be deduced satisfying p = 1, 2,3,6; 1,2,3,7;
etc.; 1, 4,6; 1,4, 7; 1,5,6;-1, 5,7; ete., ete; that is to say the
weight coefficients may be so determined as to make these indices
excepting 1 conjugate.
This will be a sufficient indication of the application of the
general formula. The identity of the formule may be shewn
graphically by treating p as the independent variable, and writing
y instead of 0 in (57), and in the particular formule deduced
therefrom. For example the curve represented by (60) and that
represented by (67), are plotted with identical parameters and
shewn in Fig. 3, Curves 10 and 11. The numerical results are as
follows :—
p= a 2 Dee Boe AR AL D6
(60) = — 0268 0 +0058 0 —-0068 0 +:0140 0 —-0721 0 +10.67
(67) = - 0247 0 +4058 0 —-0063 0 +:0163 0 — -1128 0 +73.33
18. On the number of indices satisfied by a given number of
symmetrical sections.—Let, in (57), and in the similar expressions
in which p is replaced by gq, 7, etc., the absolute or final terms be
denoted by A with suffixes corresponding to the indices. Express-
ions of that type may then be briefly written
Beer Oky #2 Avia (0
Pena C ay tN 0) ol TD)
etc. etc. etc.
the number of unknowns, viz. , y, etc., being as already pointed
out, $n when x is even, or 3(7—1) when mis odd. We proceed
to shew that in a system of equations of this type, viz. (72), A, B, C,
etc., being the particular functions of p, q, etc., indicated in (55)
68 G. H. KNIBBS.
and (57), the indices may have all integral values from 1 to n+ 1
when n is even, and from 1 to m when mis odd, provided that the
coefficients (, y etc., are suitably determined. That is to say the
series (72) will in all cases have 2m + 1 lines, m being the number
of coeflicients, whether n be odd or even, when 9, q, etc., are the
successive integers 1, 2, etc.
We have already seen that when p = 1, A,, B,, C, etc., are all
zero, and hence f, y etc. may have any values whatever: it has
also been shewn that when n = 2, or n= 3, the indices 1, 2, and 3
are satistied, provided that (3 has in the former instance the value
4.1 and in the latter 3. Further it has been demonstrated that
when n= 4 and n =5, the integral indices extend to 5, 6 and y’
being #2 and ¢ in the former, and £ and y <3 and 23 in the latter
case. Moreover it may also be readily verified that when n=6 a
septimic function is satisfied, and only a septimic when n =7.
It may also be noted that all the equations in (72) are not
independent. For example
kK C2 eG ee
K, @= 1) fk + (m - ky)? — Qn? ~ on
that is to say the values A,, B,, 0, etc, are simply 2nA,, 2nB,,
2nC,, etc. Again if p denote an even (par) number, and 7 the
odd (tmpar) number a unit greater than p, that is 1=p + 1, then
we shall have
KG ge 7K
: Pia
=P ae—pnr he EBD e2h2,..—pnk? 1428? (TA)
Pa
Biases a ~in'h+ ee igs oe (75)
that is K, has the same number of terms as K,, and & is raised to
the same powers. We may divide this last equation (75) by n,
hence substitutiny » + | for « we have
1
Pp a (p+1 hae
eo put a nC: —(p+l1)n? WW a St )pP n' kk? ~
P ig “(+l +1)
PO nk + (p+ 1)kP ..(75a)
ak) ta
1 g’ will be 2.
VOLUMES OF SOLIDS AS RELATED TO TRANSVERSE SECTIONS. 69
that is the powers of n are all identical with those in (77), and
only the coefficients differ.
Similarly
Spel. ern, reek (76)
’ l )
pe 2 at xT)
“nlp +2) ped
Hence we may divide all the equations with even indices by (p+1),
and all those with odd indices by n(i+1). The resulting quantities
K,/(p + 1), Ki/(2 + 1), ete., may be conveniently distinguished by
accents, aS in these five last equations. Let the even indices be
denoted by p, r, ¢etc.; then commencing the series (72), as modified,
with p=2, we obtain the equations
Beser Cy A —0
BoriP + Coiy+-- Apa =9 mo CUS)
etc. etc. etc.
the factors of B, y, etc., being of the type (75) and (75a): & will
be 1 for the term f, 2 for y, 3 for 6 and so on, and we may write
randr+1,¢and¢+ 1, ete. for the successive pairs of indices.
Then it will suffice to shew that values of 6, y, etc. which satisfy
the general equation for p, an even integer, will also satisfy it for
p + 1, an odd integer, provided p be not greater than n. In other
words it will then be evident that the m coefficients may be cal-_
culated from either the m even indices commencing with 2, or the
m odd indices commencing with 3; the solution from the one
series satisfying the other. That a »* function is satisfied in any
case, when the coefficients are symmetrical with respect to the
middle section, is shewn in the derivation of formule, by the
method of finite differences. If therefore we write the general
equation by commencing with the sections nearest the middle
section when 7 is odd, or the middle section when n is even, we
have for n=1
BE Pe ON ote AY “ 3 vs at a
ot 2 sae + 5) i+] S-a2)* (Gt aa) a+1) (79)
continuing with terms 5/2n, 7/2n, etc.; and also for n=p
a
70 G. H. KNIBBS.
Woo) sie iad a ee i+ ie = 2) +ete,
. c 2n oe pt+l 2 In 27 In p+1)(79a)
continuing 4/2n, 6/2n, ete. Obviously too, in expanding, we have
the same number of terms, since in (79) the final terms in the
expansion cancel one another. By considering (74) to (79a) we
easily see that (79a) will satisfy the same values for p as will (79),
or, as has been illustrated in the graph of curves 10 and 11
in Fig. 3, an n function is satisfied when 1 is odd, and a (n+1)'*
when n is even: that is to say :—
Fig. 3.
curve II.
Ordinates. Curves 6-9 ,7 O02 Abscissa =p
Curve 6.—Graph of 2/( + 1).
Curve 7.—Graph of [kP + (n—k)P |/n?; k/n = 3
Curve 8.— 99 cB) 3 +3 = S
Curve 9.— ” 9 3) asl é
Curve 10 —Five symmetrical sections: graph shews that a quintic
function is satisfied.
Curve 11.—Six symmetrical sections: graph shews that a quintic
function only, and not a sextic is satisfied.
Prop. (0). When the transverse sections include the terminal
sections, are equidistant, and have assigned to them suitable weight-
coefficients, the coefficient being the same for any pair of sections
'
gir
VOLUMES OF SOLIDS AS RELATED TO TRANSVERSE SECTIONS. 71
equidistant from the centre, then tf one of the sections be a middle
section the function satisfied will be of the same degree as the
number of sections, but if there be no middle section the degree will
be one less than the number of sections.
19.1 Manifold infinity of possible formule with symmetrical
sections.—It has been shewn that for any given number of indices
a certain number of sections must be taken, these having definite
weight-coefficients. In symmetrical sections it has also been
demonstrated that if m be the number of different coefficients,
excluding that for the terminal sections, the degree of the function
satisfied willbe 2m+1. If coefficients more than are necessary
in a particular case are taken, then a k-fold infinity of formule
may be developed.’
1 Added 16th June, 1900.
2 The solids referred to in Note 1, page 62, are solids of revolution
merely. The form of the zy function is however quite immaterial.
(2 H, G. SMITH.
On tHE AMYL ESTER or EUDESMIC ACID, occurrine In
EUCALYPTUS OILS.
By Henry G. Smiru, F.c.s., Assistant Curator, Technological
Museum, Sydney.
[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, June 6, 1900. }
In a paper by Mr. R. T. Baker and myself ‘‘ On the Stringybark
Trees of New South Wales,” read before this Society, July 1898,
we show that an ester must be present in the oil of Hucalyptus
macrorhyncha. We had several times detected the presence of
esters in other Eucalyptus oils but always in too minute quantities
to allow them to be isolated with any success.
The investigation into the constituents of these oils, now being
undertaken on material obtained from undoubted species, enables
the statement to be made, that most probably esters are present
in all Eucalyptus oils, and it is to be supposed, therefore, that to
these the characteristic odour of Eucalyptus oil is largely due.
There is an organic connection between the constituents of the
oils of the genus Eucalyptus, and it appears almost certain that
most if not all of those constituents occurring in minute quantities
in the oils of some species, are present in larger amount in the oils
of other species. It is certainly so with the two pinenes present
in these oils, with levo-phellandrene,’ with eudesmol, with (?) cumin-
aldehyde, with eucalyptol and with other constituents which have
been isolated during this research; the chemistry of these, how- |
ever, 1s not yet completed.
The ester that forms the subject of this paper has been detected
in several oils in increasing amount. The oil of the ‘‘ Black Gum”
1 Investigation of the oils of most of the New South Wales species of
Kuealyptus points to the fact that dextro-phellandrene does not occur in —
these oils.
AMYL ESTER OF EUDESMIC ACID IN EUCALYPTUS OILS. 73
Eucalyptus aggregata, contains the ester in sufficient quantity to
enable its constituents to be isolated and determined.
Unfortunately the yield of oil is small in those species of
Kucalyptus giving this esterin largest amount. The leaves of the
“Black Gum” #. aggregata, from which this oil was obtained,
were sent by the Museum collector, Mr. Baiierlen, in the month
of October, from Fagan’s Creek, near Braidwood, in this colony.
Four hundred pounds of leaves were received, but the amount of
oil obtained was only two and a half ounces, equal to 0-04 per cent.
More material was not obtainable later, without great trouble and
expense, as trees of this species do not occur within easy distance
of Sydney. More leaves of the “‘ Black Gum” will be obtained at
the first opportunity and the chemistry of the acid completed, a
research I would like to reserve to myself.
It is probable, however, that we may yet find other species of
Eucalyptus containing this ester in fairly large quantities. The
oils of #. botryoides and of £. saligna contain an ester in fair
amount; it is present in the oil of Z. rostrata, and in the oils of
several other species its presence can be proved.
The determination of this ester explains much in reference to
Eucalyptus oil that previously seemed obscure. It is most prob-
able that the amyl alcohol of this ester is connected with the
valeraldehyde known to be present in these oils, and it may,
perhaps, be found eventually, that the (?) cuminaldehyde, existing
in so many of these Eucalyptus oils, has some connection with the
acid of the ester. In the oil of Z. rostrata both the ester and
(1) cuminaldehyde occur together. The presence of this aldehyde
is much more frequent in these oils than was previously supposed.
[Since this paper was prepared I have been investigating the
aromatic aldehyde found in many Eucalyptus oils. This con-
stituent was previously supposed to be cuminaldehyde and its
odour and reactions certainly suggested that substance; but
further research points to the fact that it is not ordinary cumin-
aldehyde. When isolated in a pure condition its odour is more
qs H. G. SMITH.
aromatic than cuminaldehyde, and it differs from that aldehyde
in having a somewhat high rotation to the left, a less specific
gravity, a lower boiling point, and its oxime melts at a much
higher temperature. It is now being further investigated. | '
It must not be thought that the odour of some Eucalyptus oils
is entirely due to this ester. In the oil of Z. patentinervis a very
small quantity of an ester is present, but the odour of the saponified
oil is excellent, resembling somewhat that of Bergamot oil, and
there is little doubt but that either linalool or geraniol is present.
Acetylation of the oil showed no less than 16:5 per cent. of free
alcohol to be present in the oil of this species, calculated as
linalodl. A small quantity of citral was removed from the oil of
this species (H, patentinervis) by acid sodium sulphite, and deter-
mined by the formation of the alcyl-8-naphtocinchoninic acid
characteristic of citral,? and it seems reasonable to suppose that
this citral has some connection with the aromatic alcohol present
in the oil of this species. The leaves have a lemon odour when
crushed and are quite aromatic. It was previously supposed that
botanically 2. patentinervis was connected with L. resinifera but
the chemical determination of the constituents of its oil shows it
to have no immediate connection with that species, but to be allied
to HL. botryoides and perhaps more closely to £. saligna.
In the list of known constituents of the oil of ZL. globulus,
published by Schimmel and Co., report April 1897, we find amyl
alcohol mentioned, it may be considered that this amyl alcohol
was originally derived from the ester now being described, and
goes to show that even in an oil like that of H. globulus an ester
is present at some time, although when distilled these oils usually
consist largely of pinene and eucalyptol.
The oil of Eucalyptus aggregata.
The crude oil of the “Black Gum” £. aggregata, is very fluid,
much like water in that respect, it is light orange-brown in colour
1 Added 25 July, 1900.
2 There is no doubt but that citral does occur naturally in some
Eucalyptus oils.
AMYL ESTER OF EUDESMIC ACID IN EUCALYPTUS OILS. 75
and the odour has but little resemblance to ordinary Eucalyptus
oil. It has a high specific gravity for an Eucalyptus oil, and it
was this peculiarity that first directed attention to it. On distil-
lation under atmospheric pressure 26 per cent. was obtained,
distilling between 156° and 164° C.,’ this was principally dextro-
pinene, proved by its boiling point, formation and character of its
nitrosochloride, its odour and other tests; only 12 per cent. was
obtained, distilling between 164° and 245° C. while 22 per cent.
distilled between 245° and 292° C.; the remainder was poured
from the still and became semi-crystalline on cooling. The portion
adhering to the still was removed by ether. The crystalline
residue was reserved for further determination.
The specific gravity of the crude oil at 15° C. was 0-956
fraction 156° — 164° C. at 15° C. = 0866
<5 164°-—245°C. _,, = 0:8769
35 5 $5 245° — 292°C. 4, = 09868
Specific rotation, fraction 156° — 164° C. = [a]) + 27:13°.
Light did not pass with the crude oil.
99 99
Phellandrene could not be detected in this oil, and eucalyptol
also appears to be quite absent. The principal constituents
present are dextropinene and the ester, with perhaps some poly-
merised terpenes. A small quantity of a new constituent is also
present, this has not yet been determined, but it has been isolated
from the oils of several other species of Eucalyptus in some of
which it occurs in fairly large quantities.
Determination of Ester in the owl of E. aggregata.
As it was evident that an acid had been separated at the high
temperature used during the distillation, determinations of the
ester in the original oil were made. The oil was boiled for half
an hour with a known quantity of alcoholic potash, standardised
by semi-normal sulphuric acid, a condenser being used in the
ordinary way.
1 These temperatures have been currected to the nearest whole degree.
76 H. G. SMITH.
(L) 1-017 gramme oil required 0:1148 gramme potash, therefore
saponification figure = 112°8.
(2) 3:2378 gramme oil required 03612 gramme potash, saponi-
fication figure = 111-6.
The result of the analysis of the acid gave a molecular formula
C,,H,,0, as determined by its silver salt. Amyl alcohol is the
alcohol of the ester, and considering the acid as monocarboxylic,
the formula of the ester would be C,;H,,COOC,H,, with a molecular
value of 288, therefore the percentage of ester in the oil of
EL. aggregata is for No. 1 determination 58 per cent., for No. 2
equivalent to 57:4 per cent. or a mean value of 57°7 per cent.;
this is assuming no other ester to be present in the oil.
Determination of the alcohol of the ester.
A portion of the oil of Z. aggregata was boiled for some time
with aqueous potash, a good reflux condenser being used. The
solution was then distilled. The aqueous solution obtained was
surmounted by an oily substance in which the odour of amyl
alcohol could be detected. ‘The aqueous solution, which gave the
iodoform reaction, was separated from the oily portion and
redistilled. Nothing was obtained boiling below 100° C.; the
distillate contained a few oily globules ; neither methyl nor ethyl
alcohol was present. The distillate gave the iodoform reaction
readily, and on boiling it with sulphuric acid and sodium acetate
the solution had the characteristic odour of amyl acetate. The
oily portion of the first distillate was redistilled, it commenced to
distil at 130° C., and the portion distilling between 130° — 135° C.
was collected; although masked somewhat by the presence of a
portion of the other constituents of the oil it had the odour and
gave the reactions for amyl alcohol. When oxidised with potassium
bichromate and sulphuric acid, and treated in the usual way, the
acid obtained had the characteristic odour and reactions of valeric
acid. The alcohol of this ester is therefore amy] alcohol.
Determination of the acid of the ester.
The fraction obtained distilling between 245° — 292° C. was
agitated with aqueous potash, the alkaline solution was acidified
AMYL ESTER OF EUDESMIC ACID IN EUCALYPTUS OILS. AT
with hydrochloric acid, when a soft paraffin-like substance sepa-
rated, this soon became crystalline. The separated oil, after
agitating with the potash solution, was saponified with alcoholic
potash in the usual way, water added and the aqueous solution
acidified, more of the crystalline acid was thus obtained showing
that some of the ester had distilled unchanged, it may be
mechanically.
The residue left in the still above 292° C. was agitated with
aqueous potash, and on acidifying the alkaline solution a fairly
large quantity of the crystalline acid was obtained. On saponifying
the portion insoluble in aqueous potash in the usual way and
acidifying the solution, only a very small quantity of the crystal-
line acid was obtained, showing that the greater portion of the
ester had been decomposed by the temperature at which the oil
had been distilled. The crystalline substance thus obtained was
the acid of the ester occurring in this oil, and on purifying each
of the portions obtained as described above, an identical crystallised
acid was obtained. No phenols could be detected.
The purification of the acid was carried out as follows :—The
crystalline substance, obtained by acidifying the potash solution,
was dissolved in alcohol and boiled with the addition of a little
animal charcoal, filtered, and allowed to erystallise. The crystals
were separated, dissolved in boiling water, and filtered boiling hot,
On cooling the acid was deposited in crystals, recrystallisation
from boiling water was repeated two or three times, a product of
constant melting point was thus obtained. It is very necessary
to obtain the crystals thus, as the impurities present cannot
otherwise be removed, and these lower the melting point consider-
ably. If purification be carried out as described above, the melting
point of the crystals obtained in any direction will be constant.
The same crystals were obtained when the original oil was
saponified with alcoholic potash, and also when aqueous potash
was used for determining the alcohol.
The acid is quite white and in general appearance is not much
unlike salicylic acid, it crystallises in rhombic prisms and these
78 H. G. SMITH.
polarize brightly in colours. The melting point of the crystals is
160° C. (uncor.) and a crystalline mass is again formed on cooling,
The melting point is that of the individual crystals adhering to
the inner side of the tube, the melting point of the mass in the
tube is not sharp, and an error of two degrees might easily occur.
The acid is a very weak one, but it is exceeding soluble in ammonia
and the alkalis. It is very sparingly soluble in cold water, easily
soluble in hot water, in alcohol, in ether, in acetone and chloroform,
but it is insoluble in benzene, in petroleum spirit (even on boiling)
and in carbon bisulphide (slightly on boiling).
Sublimation—The acid sublimes with difficulty and at rather a
high temperature, it sublimes unchanged.
Ammonium salt—The acid is exceedingly soluble in ammonia,
the solution was evaporated to dryness over sulphuric acid, it
crystallised very well, it is not readily soluble in cold water, but
is so in hot water; it does not separate out again at once on
cooling, thus differing from the acid itself.
Ferric salt—The aqueous solution of the ammonium salt was
used, ferric chloride gives a light orange precipitate insoluble even
in a large quantity of water.
Copper salt—Sulphate of copper gives a light bluish-green pre-
cipitate in the aqueous solution of the ammonium salt.
Silver salt—When nitrate of silver is added to the aqueous
solution of the ammonium salt fine crystallisation of the silver
salt soon takes place, the crystals are white but become pinkish on
exposure to light.
Neither barium chloride nor calcium chloride gives a precipitate.
Solubility of the acid in water at 20° C.
The pure acid was dissolved in boiling distilled water, and when
at the temperature viven the crystals which had separated were
removed by filtration ; 25:48 grammes of the filtrate gave 0:0188
gramme solid, equivalent to 0:0738 per cent., or the acid required
1,355 parts of water at 20° C. to dissolve one part of acid.
AMYL ESTER OF EUDESMIC ACID IN EUCALYPTUS OILS. 79
Determination of the Bromide.
On adding bromide water to the aqueous solution of the acid it
it was at once bleached ; the acid is, therefore unsaturated. The
acid was dissolved in hot water and bromine added until in excess.
The bromide was very soluble in hot water, on cooling and stand-
ing a crystalline mass was obtained, this was almost colourless, it
melted at 102°- 103° C. The determination of this bromide was
made by ignition with lime in the usual way. 0:1576 gramme
bromide taken, total silver bromide obtained 0°1546 gramme or
0:0658 gramme bromine, equivalent to 41:75 per cent. bromine.
C,,H,,Br,0, requires 42°6 per cent. bromine. This indicates a
dibromide. The reactions showed the bromine to be present in
the side chain.
Molecular value of the acid.
On adding silver nitrate to the cold aqueous solution of the acid
no precipitate was obtained, the silver salt being soluble in dilute
aqueous solution. The method adopted was to add a little water
to some of the pure acid crystals, and then just sufficient ammonia
to dissolve the acid. On adding two or three drops of silver
nitrate solution a curdy precipitate formed at once, the solution
was removed from this and silver nitrate added in excess; fine
crystallisation rapidly took place, this was finally crystallised from
water. The silver salt is exceedingly soluble in hot water and
is fairly soluble in cold water. 0°0762 gramme of the silver salt
gave 0:0258 gramme metallic silver on ignition, equivalent to
33°86 per cent.; the molecular weight of the acid from this deter-
mination is 212. 00204 gramme silver salt gave 0:0068 gramme
silver, equivalent to 33°33 per cent., molecular weight of acid from
this is 217.
An acid with a formula C,,H,,0, has a molecular weight 218,
and C,,H,,;COOAg contains 33°23 per cent. silver.
Action of Nitric Acid.
On treating the acid crystals with nitric acid they at once
dissolved with formation of a crimson colour, this soon changed
to orange, on heating it became almost colourless. On adding
™"
80 H. G. SMITH.
water, colourless crystals were obtained ; these were little soluble
in cold water but soluble in alcohol. It is doubtful if this was a
nitro-compound. The crystals are microscopic needles, acid to
litmus, and melted at 113° C.; on powdering the fused material —
it again melted at the same temperature. This is near the
melting point of cumic acid, and if it be that acid, then ordinary
oxidation of the side chain had taken place.
Theoretical.
As shown above, the molecular weight of the acid of the ester
is near 215. The alcohol present is amyl-alcohol, so that the
formula for this ester is C,,H,,COOC,H,, assuming the acid to be
monobasic. The only consideration is that of the structure of the
acid. Eudesmic acid is unsaturated, taking up bromine to form
a dibromide. It is not a member of the series of fatty acids, and
its characters remove it from the acrylic series. Probably it
belongs to the series of acids homologous with cinnamic acid.
The formula for cumyl-angelic acid is C,,H,,0, having a molecular
weight of 218, this approaches very closely the molecular weight
found for eudesmic acid. [ Analdehyde resembling ]' cuminaldehyde
is frequently found occurring in Eucalyptus oils, and it may be
that this has some connection with eudesmic acid. Perkin? describes
a series of acids he had formed from cuminaldehyde. The cumyl]
or cumenylacrylic acid C,,H,,O, thus obtained consisted of white
needles melting at 157°—158° C., and giving reactions somewhat
resembling those obtained from eudesmic acid. The results show
some resemblance between the two acids, but there are many
differences between them ; the observed molecular weight might
suggest cumyl-angelic acid as the more probable. The cumenyl-
angelic acid formed by Perkin melted at 123° C.; probably the
side chain in eudesmic acid constitutes an isomeric form of angelic
acid, this may explain the differences in melting points. When
the research on this acid is continued, Perkin’s experiments will
be repeated. The crystalline acid, obtained by the action of nitric
acid, had the characters of cumic acid. If this is eventually
1 Added 25th July, 1900. 2 Journ. Chem. Soc., xxx1 , 388.
A NEW METEORITE FROM NEW SOUTH WALES. 81
shown to be that acid then the side chain in eudesmic acid is
in the para position relatively to the iso-propyl. This will be
decided when more material has been obtained.
The name, eudesmic acid, is from Robert Brown’s name for the
genus “ Eudesmia.” J Heritier’s name ‘‘ Eucalyptus,” however,
had priority.
I would like to express my thanks to my colleague Mr. R. T,
Baker, F.L.S., for botanical assistance in the preparation of this
paper, it being necessarily of the greatest importance that the
material worked upon should be true to name.
Note on A NEW METEORITE From NEW SOUTH WALES.
By R. T. Baker, F.L.s., |
Curator, Technological Museum, Sydney.
[With Plate I.]
[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, June 6, 1900. |
THE meteorite, the subject of this note, was found early in
January of this year, about two miles from Bugaldi Post Office,
fifteen miles north-west of Coonabarabran by Mr. W. Gould. I
am indebted to Mr. Robert Wilcox, Postmaster of Bugaldi for
the data in connection with the discovery of it. This gentleman
obtained all particulars for me from Mr. Gould. and it was through
his agency that it came into the possession of the Museum.
Mr. Wilcox writing me when despatching the specimen to
Sydney, states :—‘“‘The stone or supposed meteorite was found
showing on the surface of the ground. It was noticed by the
ground being torn and broken on sucha hard ridge. It had
penetrated the ground and rose out. It was found about two
F—June 6,,1900. F
. 7
uf a
82 R. T. BAKER.
miles from Bugaldi Post Office. Mr. Gould was driving a team
of horses and passed over it and examined the broken ground to
discover the cause.”
In reply to another letter of mine asking for further data,
Mr. Wilcox informed me that he accompanied Mr. Gould to the
side of the Box Ridge where he obtained the meteorite, and with
him examined the spot where it struck the earth. There was
only a small impression as there had been general showers of rain.
The spot was viewed from all sides, and from the impression on the
ground and by the way the meteorite was lying, it must have
come from the north-west. When picked up it was lying flat, the
larger end slightly in the earth, but it had probably shifted from
the position when it first struck the earth.
Shape and General Description.—Its greatest longitudinal
measurement is about 5% inches, its greatest breadth about 34
inches, and its greatest thickness about 2} inches. It is pear-
shaped, or as one person described it, similar to a bicycle
seat. This meteorite belongs to that class known as siderites,
and is probably composed of iron and nickel. It has a well defined
closely adhering ‘skin’ of black magnetic material, while the
metal immediately beneath this coating is silvery white in appear-
ance. This ‘skin’ has apparently formed after the impact. At
the extremity of the larger end a smooth portion remains, and on
this can be seen very distinctly, Widmanstatten figures.
The specimen has an exceedingly new appearance as if it had
only just arrived upon the earth. It is almost a replica in shape
of the Bingara Meteorite described before this Society by Prof.
Liversidge in 1882, but much larger than that one. It has similar
cracks and pits on the surface. The narrow end appears from
indications in the skin to have slightly twisted, but whether this
end is the original mass and the thick end to have twisted from
it can only be determined by analysis. The skin on the upper
surface and towards the base of the thicker end is undulate, and
on the corresponding part of the lower surface is longitudinally
A NEW METEORITE FROM NEW SOUTH WALES. 83
ridged. These two irregular surfaces enclose a smooth one on
which are impressed the Widmanstatten figures.
Specific Gravity —The specific gravity is 7:°853 at 16° C. Its
weight is 2053°7 grammes or 4 ibs. 8°43 ounces avoirdupois.
How it probably struck the Harth.—It is only perhaps in excep-
tional cases that meteorites possess features that will permit of
any advancing of a theory in regard to the mode of impact with
the earth. In the case of this meteorite the furrow made by it
showed that it came from the north-west, also it must have struck
the earth at a very acute angle as proved by its shape, which
shows very little evidence of impact.
The chief features of this meteorite are :—(a) Its new appear-
ance, for it looks as though it has been just taken from a mould
inanironfoundry. (0) There are no indications of slow oxidation
and where the skin has been broken off, the metal surface exposed
is just as though it had been polished. (c) The natural presence
of Widmanstatten figures.
Professor Liversidge, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., has kindly undertaken
to make a chemical investigation of this meteorite, the result of
which will be published later.
84 C. O. BURGE.
NOTES ON RACK RAILWAYS.
By C. O. BurGs, M. Inst. C.E.
[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, August 8, 1900. ]
THE method of overcoming the difficulties in railway construction
caused by unavoidable steep ascents, by means of the rack and
pinion connexion between locomotive and road, is a comparatively
old one, but it has only been in quite recent years that it has
been carried out to any great extent. As there are now nearly
one hundred rack railways in various parts of the world in use, of
which some are in the neighbouring colonies, and as surveys have
been made and information obtained by the Railway ‘Construction
Branch, N. 8. Wales Government, with the view to their intro-
duction here, it was thought that a few notes on the subject might
be acceptable to the Society.
Ordinary road traction is heavy owing to two causes, friction
and unevenness. Friction, because the wheel under its load sinks
in the ground and friction is set up between the sides of the rim
and those of the groove made by the impression of the wheel ; and
unevenness, because the ground, not being of uniform hardness, is
shaped at the bottom of the groove, by the load, into a succession
of small grades, which have to be overcome. To avoid these, iron
plates, a century ago, were laid upon the road, thus forming the
rudimentary railway from which all the enormous subsequent
development has sprung. The name of this primitive contrivance
for ordinary horse traffic, survives in that of the ‘“plate-layer” of
the modern railway. Edge rails, as they were called, and the
steam locomotive followed; but the introduction of the smooth
and hard rail brought with it difficulties of its own in respéct of
what is known as adhesion—difficulties which were practically
imperceptible in the ordinary road.
RACK RAILWAYS. 85
If the resultant between the direction of the force of gravity,
and that of the traction force of a locomotive, developed at the
circumference of the driving wheel, forms a less angle with the
rail surface, longitudinally, than the angle of friction between
steel and steel, evidently, when the driving wheel is impelled,
there will be insufficient resistance, and it will slip, causing
no motion to the vehicle in the contrary direction. There is no
purchase to work from. Extra weight on the driving wheel
increases the resultant angle referred to, and, by distributing the
weight over as many driving or coupled wheels as possible, the
purchase is increased, but there is a limit to this, and when in
surmounting heavy gradients, the resistance due to the gravity is
added to that due to the friction of the load to be drawn, a point
is reached in the amount of the load, when the traction is so great
in proportion to the greatest practicable weight on the drivers
that the resultant angle referred to cannot be kept greater than
the angle of friction, and adhesion ceases unless either the angle
of friction—which yaries with the weather—is decreased by sand-
ing the rails, or some special contrivance is adopted. Such a
contrivance is the rack and pinion, which is the subject of this
paper.
The apparatus, in its simplest form, consists of a rack, laid
centrally between the ordinary rails, with which one or more
steam driven pinions, which can be coupled in sets under the
engine, engages. At first the rack took the form of a ladder, the
rungs of which were acted upon by the cogs of the central engine
wheel, but this was soon abandoned for the ordinary rack and
pinion. It is clear that such a contrivance must be absolutely
free from all danger of breakage, for if either rack or pinion were
to break, the train would have nothing to hold it but the brakes,
and as the incline to which the system is applied is necessarily
severe, a great strain would be put upon these, and a great risk
of a dangerous runaway incurred.
This led to the introduction by Mr. Roman Abt, whose rack
system has been more generally adopted than any other, to devise
86 C. O. BURGE.
two racks side by side, the teeth of which are staggered, that is to
say the tooth of one is opposite the space of the other, an.
additional engine pinion being set to correspond. On extremely
steep grades or where loading is heavy, three racks have been
used, where the teeth of each are set one-third of the pitch behind
its neighbour. Hence, should there be a failure in one set of rack
or pinion teeth, the other set serves to hold the engine. Moreover
there are generally two sets of pinions, set tandem fashion and
coupled, to each rack.
The following is the description of the permanent way of the
Nilgiri rack railway, which is one of those most recently laid, and
is from the Government Report. I have had some particulars of
this line, which is‘on the metre gauge, courteously supplied by an
old colleague—the present Engineer-in-Chief, Madras Railway —
and the rack line in question is an extension of a branch line with
which I was connected when in India.
The rails are 50 ibs. steel, flat footed, 28 ft. 14 in. long on the
straight, held down by single spiking, except at joints, where the
outer spikes are double. The rails are fastened with deep, angle
iron, six bolted, fish-plates, weighing 40 ibs. per pair. The sleepers
are of Pyngadu wood, spaced 2 ft. 63°, in. apart, size 6 ft. x 8 in,
x6in. The rack is a double plate Abt steel rack on cast iron
chairs, weighing in all 90 ibs per yard. The length of the rack bars
is that of four sleeper spaces. The bars break joint, and are each
4-5; in. x fin., the pitch is 4}% in. and the pitch line is +3 in. below
top of bar. The two bars have a space of 14in. between them.
The slope with the vertical of the rack tooth at pitch line, is 1
in 4. The radius of pitch circle of pinion is 114 in. full. There is
a pair of pinions keyed on to the rack shaft to correspond with the
pair of rack bars. The rack teeth break pitch. The foregoing .
dimensions are mostly given in millimetres in the report, and are
converted in the above to the nearest equivalent in sixteenth parts
of aninch. The steepest grade is 1 in 124, and the sharpest
curve 328 ft. or about 5 chains, radius.
RACK RAILWAYS. 87
The Abt engines used are described as follows. They are six-
wheeled, the lower or down hill two pairs being coupled. The
wheel base is 10 ft., of which 3ft. 6in. is between the coupled wheels.
Length over buffers 24 ft. The loads on the wheels are 113 tons on
each pair of coupled, and 10 tons on the pair of uncoupled wheels,
total 33 tons, in steam and coal. The wheels are 2 ft. 8 in. diameter.
Midway between the non-coupled and the inner pair of coupled
wheels are two pairs of rack pinions in tandem 2 ft. 54 in. apart,
driven by a third pinion keyed on a crank axle. This crank axle
is driven by a pair of cylinders 10#in. in diameter and 14 in. stroke
inside the main frame of the engine. Outside the main frame,
and in line with the rack cylinders, is a second pair of cylinders
13 in. diameter and 16 in. stroke, which drive the adhesion wheels.
The boiler which is 8ft. 4in. long in the barrel has a tilt of 1 in 20.
There are tanks and coal bunkers. The overall breadth of the
engine is 8 ft. 6 in. and its height over chimney 10 ft. 6in. The
heating surface is 750 square feet, and the grate area about 16
square feet.
The Government Inspector took two fully loaded vehicles and
a brake van, in all 67 tons 14 cwt., or with the engine about 100
tons, up 900 ft. on the 1 in 123 gradient at about 4 miles per hour,
the pressure being 175 ibs. to 180 ibs.
The permanent way proposed by the Abt patentee for the New
South Wales lines, has not yet reached the stages of consideration
by the Department, and the particulars of it have only been supplied
in order that some idea of its character might be before us, in
arriving at an estimate. As however, the design is the result of
the great experience of the Abt Company in similar cases, it may
be, with the above qualification, described in this paper, the
gradient in view being | in 124, and the sharpest curve 9 chains,
the gauge being, of course, 4 ft. 84 in.
The rails are of the T section 80 lbs. per yard, with fish-plates
59 tbs. per pair, fixed by @ in. bolts to steel sleepers 7 ft. 104 in.
long 3 in. deep of the usual inverted hollow shape, in. thick. The
rack bars three in number, are 44 in. deep and 14 in. thick, and
88 C. O. BURGE.
are 13in. apart, set in cast iron chairs, with two jaws 23 in. high,
through which, and the three racks, $ in. bolts pass. The base of —
the chair, which is 93 in. wide, is attached to the sleeper by { in.
bolts. In this case also the dimensions given are in millimetres,
and have been converted into the nearest fraction of an inch.
In the Mount Morgan 3 ft. 6 in. line in Queensland, which is also
a comparatively recent work, the maximum grade is 1 in 163, on
which there are 10 chain curves, and the engines used are four wheel
coupled, with rear truck, having adhesion cylinders and valve
gear outside and rack cylinder and mechanism inside, this latter
being arranged with four pinions for double rack bars. The
adhesion cylinders are 113 in. diameter, stroke 20 in., driving two
pairs coupled wheels 3 ft, diameter, with a base of 6 ft. 3in. The
rack cylinders are 114 in. diameter and 15% in. stroke, and the
diameter of the pinions at pitch line is 22;%;in. The heating sur-
face is 4544 square feet, and the grate area 11:28 square feet.
The weight of the engine is 26 tons 17 cwt. in working order, and
it takes 50 to 60 tons besides its own weight, up the incline of 1
in 164.
In the Strub system of rack, which has chiefly come into promin-
ence by its adoption for the ascent of the Jungfrau metre gauge
electric line, there is only one rack, but it is of very strong section
forming a heavy central cogged bar 23 in. thick, and it is of special
design in order to throw off accummulation of snow and prevent
lodgement of ice, which was specially necessary in that case. To
guard against consequence of breakage a very powerful grip brake,
which will be referred to later, is in use. There is a grade of |
in 4 on this line, full particulars of which are given in the Bulletin
of the International Railway Congress for May 1899.
The grades dealt with by the rack system seldom exceed | in 4,
but there is one of 1 in 2 built on the Locher system, in which
the racks are horizontal, extending outward from a central rail,
the pinions being horizontal. Except under special circumstances
such as light weighted tourist traffic, nothing steeper than | in 10
should be used, in fact in regard to a line, now under survey in
RACK RAILWAYS. 89
this colony, the agent of the Abt Company states that the 1 in 10
at first contemplated, must if possible, be reduced to 1 in 123 at
least, as this is the limiting grade in practice, up which an ordinary
adhesion locomotive could travel light with its own weight only,
in all weathers, so that any steeper grade would isolate the systems
connected by the rack line, as regards free circulation of ordinary
locomotive stock, and also much more expensive brake power must
be applied, as the ordinary adhesion brakes would be of little or
no assistance. Further, in the extremely steep rack lines which
form part of a general system to be worked by combined rack and
adhesion locomotives, the difficulty would occur of arranging the
boiler to suit both. The tilt in the barrel suitable to an excessive |
grade, such as that allowable in a purely rack line of great steep-
ness, would be unworkable on the level or ordinary adhesion grades.
Again, on the other hand, the usefulness of the system diminishes
considerably when the grades can be eased to 1 in 25 or there-
abouts, the gain not being worth the complication of a special
system, the exact limit depending upon the circumstances of each
particular case.
The difficulty of the entry of the engine easily on to the rack
portion has been ingeniously got rid of by a contrivance invented
by Mr. Abt. The rack bars are continued for a sbort distance
on to the level or easy grade, at either end, and the last length of
them is bevelled off, as regards its depth, down to nothing, at the
end next to the adhesion line, and hinged vertically at the other
end to the previous rack bars. These end bars are supported
below by several strong spiral springs. The pinions on the engine
which are left free to revolve on the approach to the rack, are
thus gradually and easily, by means of the bevel and the elastic
movement of the end rack bars, engaged with it, and by the time
that the incline is reached, the pinions are in workable position
to be acted upon by the cylinders driving them.
The changes between varying rates of grades on the rack must
be gradually effected in vertical curves—4,000 ft. is the minimum
radius of these on the Nilgiri line, and 3,300 ft. is that recommended
90 C. O. BURGE.
by the Abt Company in the case of the 1 in 124 grade here. This
is required to prevent the tendency to mount the rack, and for
the same reason, it is evidently necessary that the relative levels
of the ordinary bearing rails and of the rack should be rigidly
preserved. With this view, steel sleepers have been advocated,
and have been adopted in the Jungfrau line, so that a more rigid
framework is attained, than if the fastenings were to ordinary
wooden sleepers. But when the sleepers are of hard wood, such
as in the Nilgiri case, and in Australia, the framing would appear
to be sufficiently rigid with the timber foundation. It need hardly
be stated that in either case, the road must be well ballasted, and
maintained in the best order.
Points and crossings might generally be avoided on a rack
portion, and limited to stopping places and junctions where easy
adhesion grades for other reasons might be interposed. I find
however that in the case of the Nilgiri line already referred to,
the consulting engineer has ordered the short gaps in the rack at
easier portions, including stations, as first constructed, to be filled
up with the rack, making it continuous, so as to leave as few
re-entering places as possible.
When points and crossings cannot be avoided on the rack itself,
the point is made in the same form that we are familiar with in
a contractor’s temporary road, that is that the two meeting sets of
rack bars stop one length short of the actual junction, and the
interval is filled in with a moveable rack bar hinged horizontally
at the junction end, and adjustable by switch rods at the other,
to either line.
The two rack crossings required, when each set of rack crosses
the bearing rail are so arranged that at these places the rack bars
and bearing rail are made of the same length, and interlocked so
that the same action which moves the rack points described above,
causes the rail at one crossing to be moved aside and replaced by
the equivalent length of rack, and the rack at the other crossing
to be replaced by the rail.
The braking on rack lines must necessarily be of a very powerful
and trustworthy character, and in the steeper grades must be
RACK RAILWAYS. 9}
applied to the rack mechanism, the adhesion brakes being in that
case insufficient in themselves. Usually there are brake discs on
the shaft of the pinion mechanism, by means of which the pinions
may be completely locked, and there is an auxiliary loose pinion
with brake discs on the trailing axle. The last serves merely for
stopping the train, in case of any accident to the driving pinions
or their gear. The braking on down gradients is done by using
the steam cylinders as air compressors, there being special pro-
visions for this purpose. On the Nilgiri line the engines are
furnished with the Chatelier brake on both rack and adhesion
cylinders. All stock, both passenger and goods, are fitted with
the vacuum automatic brake acting on all six engine wheels and
all eight wheels of each vehicle. The rack pinions are also power-
fully braked. The trains are worked down the descent almost
entirely by the Chatelier brake, the driver keeping one hand on
that, and the other on the handle of the vacuum. Thus in an
instant, he can apply the former on the engine and the latter
throughout the whole length of the train.
A similar system isin use on the Mount Lyell 3 ft. 6 in. rack
line in Tasmania.
In the Strub system, the form of the central rack with smooth
high vertical sides, allows of the employment of a scissors shape
grip brake, which is worked by hand from the vehicle fitted with
it, gripping the rack bar itself, and it forms an effective addition
to the other brakes used.
For bridges under the railway, arches instead of girders are
preferable, as otherwise the action of the pinions on the racks
would tend to cause the whole superstructure to creep downwards.
When girders are used, heavy abutments must be built on the
lower end of the bridge bearing against the end of the girders.
To guard against creep in the road generally, anchoring stop posts
butting against the down side of sleeper at intervals are some-
times required to be driven. However, in the Nilgiri line, the
deep fish plates butting against the sleepers, seem to be sufficient.
92 C. O. BURGE.
Sharp curves must be avoided in steep rack inclines, not only
for the reason applying to ordinary lines, that the resistances due
to these should not, if possible, be coincident, but for others due
to the working of the system itself. Owing to the danger arising
from possible failure of drawbars, the rack engine is usually placed
at the lower end of the train, and in ascending, is therefore push-
ing its load. The limiting safe stress on drawbars for instance in
New South Wales railways is 25,000 tbs. which on a grade of | in
124 would be the strain produced, together with train friction, by
a load of about 130 tons only, so that accidental overloading —
might conceivably occur, and cause a breakaway, if the engine
were in front. Now sharp curves are always likely to cause
derailment of a train if it is impelled from the rear, as it is obvious
that if there is any tendency on the part of any vehicle to mount
the rail, which is more likely on curves, this is intensified if pushed,
and counteracted if pulled by an engine still on the rails.
The serious nature of an accident through the breaking of a -
drawbar in a train which is being pulled up such a severe grade
as the provision of a rack implies, is evident, as there would be
certain to be some small interval of time between the fracture of
the bar and the full application of the brakes, during which the
speed on such a grade would probably have attained a dangerous
€XCeSss.
The drawback of limiting the application of the rack to lines
of easy curvature is a serious one, as it is just in the mountainous
regions where such a contrivance is required that sharp curves are
wanted to lessen works and to provide length, so as to moderate
excessive grading. The Abt Company strongly recommend a
minimum radius of 9 chains for 1 in 124 grade on our standard
gauge, and this is the limit on the Abt standard gauge line
Eisenerz to Vordenburg in Styria, where the grade is 1 in 14°7.
However on the Visp Zermat 1 in 8 line in Switzerland, and the ~
Nilgiri in India, both on the metre gauge, push-up engines are
used on 5 chain curves, which is much smaller in proportion than
9 chains on the 4 ft. 84 in. gauge, and there are other similar cases.
RACK RAILWAYS. 93
On the Bhore ghat and Thul ghat adhesive inclines, where the
ascent is from the Bombay flats to the tableland of the Deccan,
there used to be, when I was there many years ago, frequent
safety or catch sidings at intervals with reverse grades, the points
of which were kept normally open to the siding, and were only
closed by a pointsman, when the signal of the descending driver
indicated that he had full control of his train, but whether this
practice is now continued since the introduction of the more
powerful modern brakes, I am not aware; and in this country of
high wages, it would add considerably to the working expenses
of the section.
The Government Consulting Engineer in the case of the Nilgiri
line, reported against the adoption of safety sidings, except in a
_ modified form. His report states, ‘‘] am of opinion that, except
when the features of the country are such as to make it possible
at reasonable cost, to make a guard siding at the upper end of a
station, of sufficient length and grade to stop a runaway with
absolute safety, it is wiser to rely on the brakes, and to make
quite sure of their efficiency. I believe | am correct in stating
that catch sidings do not exist on any rack railway elsewhere.
They cannot be laid in at any place where there is a rack. They
were not ordered by the Board of Trade after the Snowdon
accident.”
I donot understand the statement that catch sidings cannot be
laid where there is a rack, as points and crossings, as already
described, are in use on several rack lines.
_As to speed on the rack, it is stated that a velocity of 17 to 20:
miles per hour, is easily and comfortably attained, but it is evident
that on such a comparatively short length as ordinarily is required
for the rack ascent, this matter is of minor importance.
Two systems have been adopted in lines of which a rack section
forms a part, firstly, that in which one or more rack engines are
employed, only on the rack length, taking up trains brought to
the foot of the incline by the ordinary adhesion engines, and
94 C. O. BURGE.
delivering them over to other ordinary engines at the top, and
vice versd, or possibly where the grade is not very severe, for the
ordinary engine also to go through, assisting the rack one by
adhesion only, even if the power exerted by the latter is only
sufficient to take itself up. This system only works economically
when the traffic is sufficient to employ fully the special rack
engines, and if the grade is severe, it has the disadvantage of
isolating from one another, as far as ordinary locomotive stock is
concerned, the railway systems, if there are such, at each end of
the incline.
The other plan is to provide locomotives which combine the
pinion and the adhesion principles, so as to be thoroughly effective
in both, in order that they may go through, gearing the pinion
when required in addition to their adhesion work, which latter up
fairly steep grades will share the work to a small extent, in good
weather. This system appears to gain more favour, as it is subject
only to the comparatively minor defect of carrying the useless
mechanism of the pinions, and the weight incident to them, over
a possibly considerable mileage of easy grading where it is not
wanted.
In many cases the alternative presents itself of adopting for the
ascent of a given height, a comparatively long adhesion line, or a
short and steep rack one, and this is the phase of the question
which only, up to the present, has had to be considered in this
Colony. So that it becomes interesting to ascertain as nearly as
possible, where both these methods are practicable, which is
economically the best.
An actual comparison from experience which would be trust-
worthy is out of the question for no two lines have the same data
or are under similar conditions. An attempt was made at this in
a paper by Mr. R. Wilson’ as regards the cost of raising and
hauling 1,000 foot tons by the rack system on the Hartz Moun-
tain Railways, and on the Semmering incline with adhesion
1 Institution of Civil Engineers, Min. Proc., Vol. xcvt.
RACK RAILWAYS. 95
respectively, both on the standard gauge, and shewing that the
cost of this work, on the former line, was only 76°67 (mark the
decimal) of that on the latter. But such comparisons as these as
well as those on which so much ink has been wasted, and which
are so frequently turning up with regard to the gauge and other
questions, are, I think, not of much value, unless we know much
more of the details than the writers ever give us, and even if we
had every possible detail their application to widely different local
circumstances would probably mislead us seriously.
Comparisons, deduced from trials, between rival garbage
destructors, pumps, oil engines, etc., etc., are being constantly
put before the profession, but are very misleading as a rule, for
the reason just given. There wasa trial, some years ago, between
a compound and a simple locomotive, for which a special length
of double line of railway was set apart. The two engines were
provided with the same class of fuel and water, and ran side by
side at the same time along the parallel roads, with the same
speed, load, grades, curves, and wind resistance, and yet with all
this, as nothing was said about the experience, ability, or even
temper, of the respective drivers, on which the economical working
of a locomotive so much depends, the results as to fuel consump-
tion etc. could not be regarded as absolutely decisive. Moreover
if severer grades, or other circumstances not met with in the trial,
were encountered, the results might have been reversed. So, in
the Hartz Mountain and Semmering case, where the other con-
ditions were nothing like so similar, we ought to know all about
the delicate question as to whether the respective traffic and loco-
motive superintendents in each case were capable men or otherwise,
apart from all questions of grades or racks. Sucha knowledge
might upset the whole calculation, and turn the exact figure 76°6
into something very different, and possibly over to the other side
of the comparison.
It is evident that the mechanical effort of raising a given weight,
to a given height, in a given time, is not affected by the adoption
of a rack, as it is not a power in itself but only a means of apply-
96 C. 0. BURGE.
ing power. If therefore we suppose a choice to be required
between two proposed lines which have to surmount 1,000 feet,
one 10,000 feet long with a rack grade of 1 in 10, and another
60,000 feet long with an adhesion grade of 1 in 60, the same load
to be taken up in the same time, in each case, the expenditure in
running, wages, and in consumption of fuel and water, will be
practically the same in each case. On the rack line the journal
and rail friction, apart from brake action, will be less, owing to
the lesser number of revolutions of the wheels and of the shorter
length of road, and the general maintenance of the road, apart
from that caused by the rack, will be much less, but on the other
hand there are the extra repairs ‘to the locomotive due to the
pinions and gear, the wear and tear due to extra braking, the
maintenance of the rack itself as well as the extra care required
in that of the whole road, due to the proper working of the rack
system, the cost of working the shunting stations at each end,
and the indefinable extra expense always to be looked for in deal-
ing with special apparatus inserted in the general ordinary system.
On the whole, I should be inclined to think that the determining
factor must be mainly the comparative cost of construction of the
two lines, and the question of the method by which they are pro-
posed to be worked. It is clear that if the rack section is, or is
to be in the future, a link between two extensive railway systems,
one in the low and the other in the high country, different work-
ing conditions would arise from those which would exist if the
rack line was a branch one pure and simple, with little or no
possibility of extension beyond.
In fact, the problem which would have to be solved in such an
alternative as that just referred to, would be one in which the
traffic and locomotive departments would have to be consulted
as well as the engineer. |
This paper might fitly conclude with the following extract from
a report by a Commission appointed by the Italian Public Works
Department, on this matter a few years ago, in which the leaning
evidently is towards the rack in the case of such an alternative:—
RACK RAILWAYS. 97
“« After having thoroughly studied this subject, we have come to
the final conclusion, (1) That rack railways offer an excellent
means of overcoming steep inclines, which are beyond the limit
of adhesion, and that they make railway communication profitably
possible in mountainous regions, where adhesion lines would
require the investment of too much capital, and would not pay.
“(2) That the slow speed of the rack locomotives is favourable
for working the engines economically, and that the speed, though
in itself slow, is relatively considered, about the same as the
average speed on adhesion lines.
“(3) That it is practicable, considered from a mechanical stand
point, for cog-wheel locomotives to ascend grades from 34 to 25
per cent. (1 in 40 to 1 in 4) but that from an economical stand
point considered, the grade on combination rack railways with
large trattic should not exceed 7 per cent. (1 in 14:28).
“(4) That the Abt system, for lines with large passenger and
goods traffic is preferable to any other rack system.
“(5) That the efficiency of a rack railway, even on very steep
grades is considerable, but on grades of 6 to7 per cent. (1 in 16°66
to 1 in 14°28) its efficiency is equal to that of an adhesion line of
24 per cent. (1 in 40).
“(6) That the total operating expenses of a combination rack
railway are smaller than those of an adhesion one between the
same points, hence that rack systems can favorably compete. with
adhesive lines.
“(7) That Italy contains many locations where the application
of the Abt system would be advisable from a technical as well as
from an economical point of view.”
G—Auzg. 8, 1900.
98 C. W. DARLEY.
NOTES ON DAMAGE CAUSED BY LIGHTNING TO
SEAL ROCKS LIGHTHOUSE on 10rn JULY, 1900.
By C.. W. DARLEY, M. Inst. C.E.
[With Plate IT. ]
[Read before the Royal Society of N. 8. Wales, August 8, 1900. ]
THE Seal Rocks Lighthouse which is situated one hundred and
seven miles north of Sydney stands ona bold projecting headland
at an elevation of two hundred and fifty-eight feet over sea level.
The lighthouse stands by itself on a well defined conical hill, the
keeper’s quarters being built on a lower plateau, and distant about
three hundred feet.
The day the lightning occurred had been fine, but for two days
previously heavy thunder clouds hung low over the locality, and
there had been frequent peals of thunder, but apparently this
condition was quite local, although it extended some distance
inland, for at Bungwall six miles, and Bullahdelah about twenty
miles inland, a similar atmospheric state was reported. At 3 p.m.
the light tower was struck by lightning. .
The tower is fitted with a solid copper lightning conductor 14
in. by #in. half round, and is attached at top to the copper roof of
lantern. It passes down outside the lantern to the gallery, and
then passes in through the lantern base, and down the inside of
the tower, being secured to the wall with copper screws in lead
plugs. Upon reaching the floor of the lamp room in basement, it
passes out under the wall, and is then taken underground to earth,
but where or how has not yet been ascertained.
The electric fluid entered the vane on top of lantern dome (the
ends of the feather being bent and fused and the base mold lifted
3 in.) thence passing down the lightning rod. A portion of the
current was communicated to the electric bell wires on the middle
DAMAGE CAUSED BY LIGHTNING TO SEAL ROCKS LIGHTHOUSE. 99
or green-light floor. These bell wires which lead from the lamp
room to the principal and assistant keepers’ quarters are laid
underground within | in. galvanised iron gas pipe for a distance of
about 300 ft. The current apparently tried to make earth at three
places, for thé pipe was burst out and the sockets split, the earth
overlying the pipe at these places being blown away. At the
houses the wires lead up verandah posts within a wood casing
which was torn off and split into fragments. A sheet iron covering
where the wires entered the houses was blown off, and in one case
with such force that it cut a passage for itself through the top of
a paling fence six feet away. Some stone flags on the verandah
round the post were displaced, and generally there were many
indications of the efforts of the lightning to make earth.
To return to the lighthouse. The iron flooring, ceiling, and
staircase of lantern must have been thoroughly charged, as numer_
ous spots appear where the paint has been blown off, varying in
size from about i to | in. diameter, the bare iron underneath being
fused and in some cases pitted, the iron ceiling underneath this
floor is fastened to the iron girders with iron set screws, and the
heads of eight of these screws have been blown off. ‘The battery
for the electric bells (which stood on top of the lobby framing at
entrance to the green light room) was destroyed and the wires
Jeading downwards through the store room below have disappeared,
one side of the lobby framing was shattered and the entire framing
was wrenched away from its fastenings and moved some 4 in. out
of place, the writing desk which was fixed on two iron brackets
against the side of lobby was broken up as also was one of the
iron brackets, the ink pot which stood on the desk was driven
with such force against the reflector of the green light on the other
side of the room, as to dent the reflector, but not to seriously
damage it ; the clock was destroyed ; the glass in all the windows
of this room was blown out, and four panes of glass in the main
lantern were badly fractured. No injury was done to the dioptric
apparatus or lamps of either the main light or the green light, and
both remain in good working order. A copper screw which held
100 Cc. W. ellen:
the lightning conductor to the wall was blown out and shows
traces of fusion.
In the oil-store in basement (which opens to the outside only
and has no direct connection with the green light room by stair-
case or otherwise) stood an open bucket containing about two
gallons of kerosene oil, and in four tanks was stored about one
hundred and fifty gallons of seal oil. The flash from the fused
' bell wires may have communicated with the kerosene oil and
caused an explosion, for the entrance door was blown out and
destroyed, also the door leading into small store under outer stone
staircase, and the glass from all windows. The weight tube which
is 11 in. diameter and constructed of stout zine about 9 gauge or
.147 in. thick was blown to pieces for a length of about eight feet,
part passing through the doorway and landing about forty feet
from the building; the weight chain was clogged in places with
fused metal.
The lids of the oil-tanks were blown off and destroyed, and
most of the draw-off cocks were injured, but the oil inside did not
escape. The arched concrete floor between the cil room and the
green-light room above appears to have been bodily driven upwards
as it is cracked all round some three or four inches from the wall.
The skirting and weight tube indicate that it lifted up at least a
quarter of an inch. The floor of oil room is paved with asphalt,
and this has been melted and destroyed. All the copper measures,
buckets, oil-pump etc., which were in the room were injured, and
one spare lamp for the main light was found embedded fast in the
asphalt paving. The fire which followed destroyed all the work
tables, tool chest, tank stand, ete.
Probably the whole cause of the damage is due to the lightning
conductor not making an efficient earth connection. No doubt
it was unwise to lead the conductor part of the way down the
inside of the tower, but this appears to have been occasionally
adopted in English practice, and in the case of the Eddystone
Lighthouse, and the Nash Low Lighthouse, where this was done,
the towers were struck by lightning and damaged internally.
DAMAGE CAUSED BY LIGHTNING TO SEAL ROCKS LIGHTHOUSE. 101
' Another lesson to be learnt from this occurrence is the necessity
for insulating the bell wires. The whole of the lantern is a metal
structure with a copper roof, and the modern lighthouse practice
is to attach the lightning conductor not directly to the vane on
top, or the copper roof, but to attach it to the base of the lantern
and thus depend upon the lantern collecting the current and
conveying it to the conductor.
The bell wires are invariably in metallic contact with some
portion of the lantern, and therefore just as liable, as in the case
in question, to be charged with lightning as the proper conductor.
It is proposed to attach a copper band 14 in. by 3% in. to Seal
Rocks Lighthouse from the copper dome of lantern, and lead it
down outside and take it to earth, taking steps to so bury the
earth plate and maintain it in a state of efficiency by leading the
discharge from overflow and down water pipes over the pit where
the plate is sunk.
When replacing the bell wires stcps will be taken to carefully
insulate them from any metallic contact in the lantern.
The following reports as to the state of the weather on the coast
north and south of Seal Rocks on the 10th July, have been kindly
supplied to me by Mr. H. C. Russell, am.a., the Government
Astronomer. The matter is of special interest inasmuch as it is
most unusual for thunderstorms to occur on the coast in the month
of July :—
Port Macquarie, sixty-five miles north. Pilot reports—I neither
saw or heard thunder that day. |
Manning River, thirty-four miles north. Pilot reports—No-
thing of any consequence took place near this station, but
thunder was heard previous evening.
Port Forster, Cape Hawke, eighteen miles north. Pilot reports—
On day lighthouse was damaged the weather was very ©
threatening to the south-east, heavy squalls passing out to
sea with distant rolling thunder, and at night there was
bright lightning in the direction of Seal Rocks. About
11 p.m. a very heavy clap of thunder.
iO 2 Cc. W. DARLEY.
Stroud, about thirty-three miles inland, almost due west. Post-
master reports—Heard no thunder about 3 p.m., but from
6 to 9 p.m. that evening I heard thunder and saw several
flashes of lightning in the east towards Seal Rocks, and it
struck me at the time it was a somewhat unusual thing to .
have storms in July.
. Port Stephens, forty-four miles south. Lighthouse keeper
reports—That lightning and thunder were severe for about
ten minutes on that day.
From the foregoing notes it appears the storm was very local,
the centre apparently passing inland over Sugarloaf Point, on
which the Seal Rocks Lighthouse is erected.
Added 3rd September, 1900.
read, the earth terminal of the lightning conductor has been
Since the foregoing paper was.
opened up, and found to be in apparently good order, the sur-
rounding soil being damp. The position of the earth plate is
shewn on the accompanying drawing (Plate 2). A defective joint
has been found in the copper conductor, which escaped notice
during the first examination, being situated in. the green-light
room behind the iron stairs. This was a lap joint, the two parts
being held together by a screw passing through into a lead plug
in the wall. It now transpires that the screw has been loose for
some time, and when painting the walls, which is done almost
every second year, the paint got in between the laps of the copper
rod and thus broke continuity, causing the electric current to
escape and thus do all the damage reported.
LANGUAGE, ETC., ABORIGINES OF PORT STEPHENS. 103
THE LANGUAGE, WEAPONS ann MANUFACTURES or
tHE ABORIGINES or PORT STEPHENS, N.S.W.
By W. J. Enricut, B.a. Syd.
(Communicated by R. H. Matuews, t.s., Memb. Corres. Soc.
d’Anthrop. de Paris.)
[With Plates III., IV.]
[ Received Aug. 29. Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, Sep. 5, 1900. ]
Last year I contributed a short paper to this Society on ‘‘ The
Initiation Ceremonies of the Aborigines of Port Stephens.” On
the present occasion it is intended to supply a grammar and
vocabulary of the Kutthung, one of the tribes dealt with in my
former article, and it is hoped that this attempt to preserve the
language of the native tribes on this part of the coast of New
South Wales may be found of some value. Two photographs,
showing a number of weapons and other articles collected by me
amongst these natives have been added, together with a short
description of each.
My best thanks are due to my old and valued friend, Mr. R. H.
Mathews, of Parramatta, for introducing me to the principal men
of the tribe, and for many practical suggestions whilst I was
occupied in carrying on the work.
In the system of spelling adopted, all the consonants have the
same value asin English. The sounds of the vowels are repre-
sented in the following words :—
a = fate 1 = wit wu = gun
aé@ = fan 7 = mite um = sure
@ = far o = dot ou = now
Ca seb 6.= note OY — Coy;
ée =, meet oo = moon
+ Journ. Kuy. Soc. N. S. Wales, xxxiir., 115-124.
104 W. J. ENRIGHT.
The letter g is hard in every case. Dh is pronounced nearly
as th in that, with however, a slight, initial dsound. JW preceding
y, as in Nyee, has the sound of # in cafion, thus Nyee is pronounced
nearly as in-yeé, but quickly as one word. The final / is guttural,
and somewhat like the ch in the German, but is not so marked.
The accented syllable is shown in the usual way throughout the
paper, and where there are two accented syllables in the same
word, they are both marked.
THe KutrHunc GRAMMAR.
1. The Kut’-thung dialect is spoken amongst the Aborigines
living along the southern bank of the Karuah River and the south
shore of Port Stephens. It was at one time spoken amongst the
tribes lying between Port Stephens, West Maitland and Paterson,
but with the exception of the Kutthung, they are now extinct.
The adjoining tribes were the Gummigingal, inhabiting the
territory on the north shore of Port Stephens and the Karuah ;
the Warringal,’ living between Telegherry and Pipeclay Creeks ;
the Warrimee, living between Telegherry Creek, Port Stephens,
the Sea Shore and the Hunter River: the Garawerigal,’ between
the Myall River and the sea shore; the Yeerunggal,* about the
Myall Lakes; the Birrimbai, in the neighbourhood of Bungwall
Flat ; and the Birroonggal,’ on the Myall River.
2. There are only two numbers, the singular and plural, and each
number has three persons. The personal pronouns are used for
?> which has no real existence
the present tense of the verb ‘to be,’
in that form e¢.g. “Nut/-w4” is the equivalent, not only for “I,”
but also of “I am.” ‘Yeé-ni-ar” is the Kutthung term for
‘“‘thou art” as well as for “thou,” and in this latter sense in forming
the future and past tenses.
* People of the Spear. * People of the Streams—(In Proc. Roy. Soc
N.S.W., Vol. xxxirt., p. 124, I have erroneously called this tribe the
Doowalligal) % People of the Sea. * People of the long and narrow
piace. ° People of the deep river.
LANGUAGE, ETC., ABORIGINES OF PORT STEPHENS. 105
Present Tense—Mur'-rook = Good.
Nut’-w& mur’-rook, I am good
Yeé-ni-ér mur’-rook, Thou art good
_Na-ar mur-rook He is good
Nyeé-un mur’-rook We are good
Noo-rar mur’-rook You are good
Bara mur’-rook They are good
Past Tense—Yer'-ri-kee = Bad.
Yer'-ra-kee nut’-wa gut’-ta-lié, I was or have been bad
Yer-ra-kee yeé-ni-ar gut’-ta-l4 Thou wast or hast been bad
Yer’-ra-kee ni-ar gut’-ta-la He was or has been bad
Yer’-rd-kee nyeé-un gut’-ta-li We were or have been bad
Yer’-ri-kee noé-rar gut -ta-la You were or have been bad
Yer’-ri-kee ba-ri gut’-ta-li They were or have been bad
g My
Mur’-rook
Mur’-rook
Mur’-rook
Mur’-rook
Mur’-rook
Mur’-rook
Future Tense.
nut’-wa gun’-yee I will or shall be good
yeé-ni-ar gun’-yee Thou wilt or shalt be good
nu-ar gun’-yee’ He will or shall be good
nyeé-un gun’yee We will be good
noo-rar gun’-yee You will or shall be good
ba’-ra. gun’yee They will be good
3. The articles “a” and “the” are not translated.
4. Personal pronouns; possessive.—These are always placed
before the noun they agree with.
Example J.—\. Bee-num’-bé Bar-ra-kun’. 2. E-go6-bA Kun’-ni.
3. Bur’-rub-ba gum’-mi. 4. Noon’-gum-bah mir’ree.
Translation—1. Your boomerang. 2. This yamstick. 3. My
spear.
4. Her dog.
5. Nouns.—The nominative is generally placed foremost in the
sentence, the objective usually follows it, and the verb governing
the object is placed last.
Example II.—1. Mir’-ree goo bud-jeé-li. 2. Nut’-wa ba-ra
bun-yil’-a. 3. Nut’-wa koor’-ee tod-ree-al’-la. 4. Mut’-too
koor’-ee bud-jeé-la.
106 W. J. ENRIGHT.
Translation—1. The dog bit him. 2. I struck them. 3. I
speared a man. 4. The ‘black snake’ bit a man.
6. Nouns, possessive.—The possessive is formed by adding
‘“‘go00'-ba ” to the possessing noun.
Example III.—i. Kod-noong-goo-b& bar-ri-kun’, 2. Wam’-
bo-gn-goo-ba nimbik. 3. Bing’-hi-goo-ba gum’-mi. 4. Kidn-
goo-ba mir’-ree.
Translation—1. The old man’s boomerang. 2. The kangaroo’s
(doe) bone. 3. The eldest brother’s spear. 4. The
woman's dog.
7. Nouns, ablative.—The ablative is formed by adding ‘‘o0o” to
the noun. In cases where the final letter of a word is a vowel,
the vowel is dropped.
Example [V.—1. Nut’-wa koor’-ee bar'-ra-kundodéd bun-yil’la.
2. Nut’-wa koor’-ee goot’-the-roo bun-yil’-1a.
Translation —1. I struck a man witha boomerang. 2. [ struck
a@ man with a club.
8. Verbs.—The verb is without any change in the present tense
for either number or person. The same rule applies to the past,
which is formed by adding ‘lla” or “1a” to the present tense.
The present participle is formed by adding ‘‘llin” or “lin” to the
present tense. Euphonic changes are also occasionally made in
the final syllable to meet this addition. There is no separate
form of the verb for the future, which is indicated by suffixing
“nuh” to the nominative agreeing with the verb.
Present. Past.
Mur’-roo-ma (make) Mur-roo-ma-]ai (made)
Bun’-yee (strike) Bun-yil'-la (struck)
Yal'-l6-wa (sit down) Yal’-l6-wal’-la (sat down)
Bud-jeé (bite) Bud-jeé-]4 (bit)
Boon'-ma (steal) Boon'-ma-la (stole)
Boo-ba (le down) Boo-ba’-]a (laid down)
Bit’-yee (drink) Bit’-yeel-la (drank)
LANGUAGE, ETC., ABORIGINES OF PORT STEPHENS. 107
Present Participle.
Mur’-roo-ma-lin (making)
Bun-yil-lin (striking)
Yal’-l6-wal’-lin (sitting down)
Bud_jeé-lin (biting)
Boon’-ma-lin (stealing)
Boo-ba’-lin (lying down)
Bit’-yeel-lin (drinking
The verbs have no passive, but the sense of the passive is
rendered by means of the indicative.
Example V.—1. Wut'-t& koor’-ee win’-yal-la. 2. Tod-mul-la
kidn ku-reel-lé. 3. Bud’-jee nw’-ar-nuh. 4. Kut’-ti nut’
wa-nuh? wun’-da doo’-kun kut’-ti bar’-ee-A4. 5. Nut’-wa
gum’-mi mur’-roo-ma-lin. 6. Bing’-hi-goo-ba bar-raé-kun’
goo bun-yil’-la. 7. Nut’-wa beé-yar-goo-ba yuk’ree boon’-
ma-lé. 8. Nod-kwum-ba nur-rin kidn-goo-b&i bor-ta’
dun-yil’-]a.
Translateon—\|. A man was burnt in the fire (/7¢. fire burnt a
man). 2. The woman was drowned in the creek (/zt. creek
drowned the woman). 3. I will bite. 4. I will go when
the sun sets (dé. I will go when the sun goes from me).
5. I made a spear. 6. I struck him with the eldest
brother’s boomerang. 7. I stole my father’s wommera.
8. His eldest sister ate the woman’s food.
9. Adjectives.— Adjectives are generally placed after the noun
they qualify —
Koor’-ee mur’-rook, a bad man; kidn yer’-ra-kee, a bad woman.
The comparative is formed by adding “bing” to the adjective,
and the superative by the addition of ‘‘beé-rang,” signifying
“very”? —
mur-rook, good ; mur-rook-bing, better ; mur’-rook-beé-rang, best
yer -ra-kee, bad; yer’-ra-kee-bing, worse; yer -ra-bee-beé-rang, worst.
1h is guttural, see explanation hereinbefore.
108 W. J. ENRIGHT.
10. Abverbs.— Adverbs may be formed from adjectives by
means of the suffix “boo ”—
Yer'-ra-kee, bad ; yoo-ra, slow ;
Yer'-ra-keé-boo, badly; yoo-ra-boo, slowly.
11. Prepositions.—Prepositions are placed after the nouns they
govern. Some are separate words, and others are simply suffixes.
Examples of the latter are “oo,” which has been previously referred .
to as forming the ablative, and “gwa” meaning among, also
“numbar” meaning at, and ‘‘in-ge-ra” signifying with.
Example VI.—1. Beé-yar mur’-rook koop’-pal-eé-a-gil-lin goog’-e-
roo. 2. Nit-ar gum’-mi ga-bal-lin nyeé-un num’-ba. 3.
Nyeé-un nur-ra gub’-bee-rung kut’-ti. 4. Koop’-pal-eé-a
ba-ra-nuh yoon’-go god-4r. 5. Wot’-too mur’-ralin dheer’-
ra-gwa. 6. Nut’-wa bar-in-ge-ra kut’-ti. 7. Kidn koor’-ee
boo-larng’ kut’-ti. 8. Wot’-too pur’-rup& wok’ka yAl’-l06-
wal'lin. 9. Darn’-dee yal’-l6-wal’-lin wit-tuk bara. 10,
Ky'-in-dub’-ba yal’-16-wal’-lin wit’-tuk bara.
Translation—\. The good father is running to the hut. 2. He
is throwing a spear at us. 3. Wego from the camp. 4.
They will run up to the mountain. 5. The opossum is
sitting among the branches. 6. I go with them. 7. The
man and woman go together. 8. The opossum is sitting on
top of the hut. 9. They are sitting on this side of the
creek. 10. They are sitting on the other side of the creek.
12. Conjunctions.—Conjunctions are ‘“‘dil’-ling,” meaning also,
and “ya-ree,” meaning or.
Example VII.—1. Noo-ka bar'-ee-& bar-ra-kun’ gum’-mi dil’-ling.
2. Na’-n&i wom’-m6 koor’-ee y4-ree kidn ya’-ree.
Translation—1. Give me a boomerang and also a spear. 2. Who
is the fatter —the man or the woman ?
13. The negative is expressed by means of ‘:gooran” (not) and
the imperative is expressed by adding ‘“‘yung” or ‘‘ni” to the verb.
Dun’-yee, eat ; Koop’-pal-eé-4, run ;
Dun’-yee-yung’, don’t eat ; Koop’-pal-ee’-a-ni, don’t run.
LANGUAGE, ETC., ABORIGINES OF PORT STEPHENS. 109
14. The interrogative is expressed by means of ‘‘weéd-yuh,” e.g.
Weé-yuh mur’-rook, is it good ?
This word appears to be used in asking a question concerning
the quality of anything. There are other words which are used
to inquire concerning time, manner, place, etc., which will be
found in the vocabulary in the succeeding pages.
15. Numerals.—The numerals are really only two, viz. ‘‘ wok’-
kool,” one, and “‘bul-ld-ra,” two ; but by compounding these the
Kutthung is able to count as far as five. Any greater number
than five he expresses by “doocalla,” a great many.
VOCABULARY OF THE KutrHuNG LANGUAGE.
The words in the following vocabulary have all been spelt
phonetically and the translation of them into English is given as
literally as possible. In some instances the English word will be
found to have two equivalents in the Kutthung. This I think
has been caused through tribes coalescing, as their numbers
dwindled away and tribal boundaries were effaced before the march
of civilization. By this means each new addition to the tribe
would inevitably mean a slight addition to the language. The
reader will please note that “d” and ‘“‘¢” are interchangeable as
also are “g” and “k.”
Kutthung. English equivalent. | Kutthung. English equivalent.
Beé-yar, father Ber’-ri-ma, the teal
Boor’-i, baby boy Brod-ee-gee, to swim
Boor'-1 Tod-kal ie (lit.b¢g baby)| Brod-ee-gal’-it, whip snake
Bit-theé, o/d woman Bung-hi, to-day, now
But-tong’, black Buk-oo-ee, meat
Bur-ra, white or light coloured Bud-geéla, bit (past tense)
But’too, smoke But-tig-yee’, watile tree
Bur’-ri, earth, territory belonging | Bur-roé-ma, mahogany
Bin’-dul, beard [to a tribe | Be-lorn’, stingaree
Bee, the wrist Bun-yeé, to strike
Buk-a, the knee Bunn-yil’-Ja, struck
Bar-ra-kun' returning boomerang | Boo-ba, to lie down
Bur-rid’, the wallaby Bur’-rung, red
Book’-ut, bandicoot Booé-mer-1, grass tree
Bul’-boo, kangaroo rat But-teé-yuk, white ant
110
W. J. ENRIGHT.
Kutthung.
English equivalent. | Kutthung.
English equivalent.
Bir’-rum Bir’-ra, bird’s nest fern
Bo6o-ra, short
Bir’-rin, wide
Buk’-koo-wee, short
Bir’-reon, to break
Boon-dheé-la, to fall
Bin’-dhee, stomach
Bur’-rin, a net
Buk’-& Buk-a, savage
Bur’-oo-lit’, rosella parrot
Buk’-4, angry, to quarrel
Bun-bee-al’-la, to drop on ground
Bum-'bee wut'-ta, to make fire
Bo6-took, soft, smooth
Boon'-ma, quiet
Bar’-koon, a coward
Bir’-ree-wel, brave
Bo6-1, breath
Bing’-hi, youngest brother
Bool'-bung, the larger circle at
the keeparra ground
Bar’-ré-wa, a large bullroarer
used in keeparra ceremony
Bort-ta, food
Beé-rang, very
Bun-di-leel’-la, cué
But’-thoon, a dilly bag
Bir’-roo-yee, fish-hook
Boo-ee-buh, to copulate
Bil’-lung-ree, the black oak tree
Boor’-rool, heavy
Bun’-ga Bug’gun, flock pigeon
Bool’gee, dry
Bor Bor, a circular piece of bark
cut off a tree and used
asa flying target
Boor’-ro-wang, female of the
Bul-lo’-ra, two | Macrozamia
Bul-lo’-ra Wok’-kool, three
Bul-lo’-ra Bul-lo’-ra, four
Bul-lo’-r4 bul-lo’-r4 wok’-kool, five
Ra-ra, they, them, those
Ba’-lee, to
Bar-in-gin-in’-da, theor
Bar-in-gin-in’-da-wee, these
Bee-num’-ba, your
Bum-ba’Ja, married (past tense)
Boon'-dhee, a club used both for
throwing ond striking
Bool’-gee bur-ri, a drought (lit.
dry earth )
Boo-larng', together
Boon’-ma, to steal
bee-ram’-mer, marks made at
Keeparra on the body
of the initiate
Bur-run gee, the native squirrel
Boom ’-be-ra, the testicles
Bir’-ree-wel goo-ran, weak (lit.
not strong )
Bit’-yee, to drink
Ba-rel’-la, a fly
Bur’-rin, a net
Boon'-ger-al, a fight
Bot'-yee, to carry
Boon-da/-gee, to swallow
Ba-ra, down
Ban, aunt
Bil’-lin, yellow
Beé-yar Goo-ran, fatherless
Bur’-rub-ba, my
3uk-kin’, half
Din’-na, the foot
Doon'-ga, the right arm [large
Doé-kal or tod-kal, great, big,
Doon’-dee, small coolamon
Dir’-ra, a tooth
Doon’-git, carpet snake
Dut’-tee, dead
Doon’-ge-ra, pelican
Dod-nong, the eel
Dur’-ra-ra, dry
Dun’-yee, eat
Dhur’-ra, the leg
Dhap-pee, the chin
Dod-mu, to keep
Dhun’-barn, strong
Dun’-gee, to tre
Dhur’-oo-bal-lee, to leak
Dhum-but, thirsty
LANGUAGE, ETC., ABORIGINES OF PORT STEPHENS.
Kutthung. English equivalent.
Dun’-ga, to shew
Doon’-gal, tears
Dhur’oo-bal-lee kun’-ge-ra, to
bleed (lit. to leak blood)
Dhir’-ri-bwee, oyster
Dheé-ra, a branch
Dun'dul, between
Darn’-dee, on this side of
Dhub’-ba, whilst
Dir’-ree Dir’-ree, rough
Doé-ping, @ mosquito
Dip-oon’-gi, a stone used for
sharpening shell fish-hooks
Dheé-ka, the native companion
Dhur’-i-ee, thin
Dul'dee, to kick
Dhook-kee, to rise
Dool’-bee, a pointer consisting
of a stick lashed crosswise
toan upright and pointing
in the direction that people
have gone .
Dhal’-gi, a@ minor initiation
ceremony
Dir’-rawa, a rib
Do6-kal-la, a lot, great many
Dreé-al-ung, speared
Dun’-dul-Ja, narrow
Dheé-wee, the navel
Doé-roong, brown
Dung’-ga, the vagina
Dhoo-ree, straight
Do6-wa-kee, to search
Doon’-ga, to know
Dhir’-roo-la, dangerous
Dhur’-roo-me-ree, a rainbow
Dil’-ling, also
E-go0-ba, this
Ek’-a-ba, good-bye
G3-ro6-wa, sea
Go-on, mangrove tree
Gool’-be ree, a few
Goo-la, the native bear
Ga-long, going
Gum-wi, a spear
| Kutthung.
Piel
English equivalent.
Gool-ya, the penis
Ga-lun-gun’, the green tree-snake
Goo-ba, of
Gun’-gul-ba, black comorant
Ga’-ra, the schnapper
Gra-bun, groper, (a fish)
Gur’-ra wur’-ra, jew fish
Gur-um’-bee, white gum
Go0d-ee-wee, shark
Gir’-um-bit, salt water
Gir’-ra-gar, honey
Gip-pee, wet
God-jee ik’koo, come here (the
expression of greeting used
among the Kutthung)
Goo6-ra, long
Go06-nood, old
God-roo-mul, young
Gul’-lu, cheeks
Gur’-ri, to choke
Ghin'-doo-ee, turkey
Gir Gir, king parrot
God-wok, hard
Gun'-ya, hut
God-bree-gi, hungry
Goo6-rum-ba, to tell lies
Gool’-bee, a noise
Gra-bi-na, to steal
Gir-ru, alive
Gun’-gil-lee, to weep
Gir-ree-boo, to lose
God-ee-wut, shower of rain
Gur’-rel-bool’-lin, to dig
Goo, him
Gool-gi, pathway leading from
Boolbung to Goonambung
Goo-lum’-bra, the first man, now
the presiding genius of the
Keeparra
Go6é-nan-duk’-yer, (lit. stercun
humanum edens) the small
bullroarer
Goon’-da-ree, the
(angophora)
ir'-ree-poot, spotted gum
apple tree
112 W. J. ENRIGHT.
Kutihung. English equivalent.
Gir’-rum-b6, dying
Gir’-rung, green (unripe)
Goor’-rum-bal’-in, 20 gammon
Gir’-rungh, a leaf
Gul’-bee-meé-nung, silent
Gun’-dim-mur’-ra, barbed spear
made of hard wood
Gut’-ta-la, was or have been
Gun’-yee, sha/l or will
Goo-reel, the large shield
God-ge-ree, hut
Gub’-bee-rung, from, from the
direction of
Gwa (also kwa), a suffix ndica-
ting among
Goo-ar, up to
Gal, a people, a tribe
Gun-'dee-wi, the flying fox
God-ran, no, not
Gur’-rool, perspiration
Gin’-du, whilst
Jik’-ker-a, white ironbark
Kit’. chung, hair
Kidn, woman
Koor’-ee, man
Kod-noong, old man
Koong-un’, flood
Ko6-ee-wun, rain
Kur’-ru-won, swmmer
Kir’-ra-kur’-ra, autumn
Koor'’-ra, night
Keé-wong, moon
Kun’-ge-ra, bluod
Kreé-pun, spotted gum
Kur’-ree-ki, myrt/e
Keé-la, to micturate
Koo-yuk, canoe
Kur’-run-gi, black duck
Kow’-wer-ree, brown snake
Kow’-al-ga-lit, diamond snake
Kur’-roon-gee, to jump
Kur’-ree Kur’-ree, fast
Kur’-ra-ka, mouth
Kut’-yee, to cut
Kut’-ta, to drop out of your hand
| Kutthung.
English equivalent.
Kok’-&-too, cockatoo
Kut’-te-ra, fast
Kur -rup-pa, loins
Kur’-run-gee, a fool
Kur’-roo-ma, to climb
Kut’-ti, to go
Ky’-in-dub’-ba, on ie sede of
Kup'-p6-ee, an egg
Kup’-poon- dee, hut
Kun-ni, a@ yane stick
K6-kee-dun, come here
Kil’ lung, a feather
Kup'-pé, bye and bye
Kur’-14-gup, soon
Kod-ye-roo, a bone used for
combing the hair
Kur-re-ki, bush myrtle
Koon’ -dool, root of a tree
Kun-da, a Oe s nest
Kur-re-keé, to fetch, to carry
Koot’-thee wit'-tee, to sing
Krum’-moon, clouds:
Kor’-oo-ba, the furtescue fish
IXeé-par-ra, the initiation cere-
mony of the Kutthung
Kit-tee, the large coolamon
Koov he: ra, a nullah or club
Kin-yarngh, pleased
Koow’-ba, to-morrow
Koom -bug-ga, day after to-morrow
Kur Zalal drowned |
Ky’-in-goo, over
Kow’-wan, uncle
Kut’-thung, to spit
Ka’-pee, to throw
Khir’-roodn, itching
Ko6 ee-puk’-kee, to smell
Kuyp-paw, stop
Koo Ja-hee, to snare
Kyiv, across
Kooyp-; al-eé-a, runs
Mit’-ree, dog
Mur’-re-kun, girl
Mich’-ee-gain, (attle garl
Mul’-boo, thunder
LANGUAGE, ETC., ABORIGINES OF PORT STEPHENS.
113
Kutthung. English equivalent. |
Kutthung. English equivalent.
Mun-ni, séar
Mut’-te-ra, hand
Mik’-kong, the eye
Min’-gin, the liver
Mur’-rook, good, happy
Mur-rung, nice, beautiful
Mun-um-ba, red gum tree
Mun-nung, sand
Mil’-lhin, mud
Mun-noong, a hill
Munyil-la, gave
Ma-ning, to take
Mur’-roo-ma, to make
Ma’-ril-la, caught
Ma, the finger
Mit’-tee, small ‘
Mur’-ro-ma-la, made
Min’-4-g6, why :
Mut’-too, black snake
Moé-nul-gook, death adder
Mim-m6, blind
Mur-ra-lin, climbing
Mur/-rom-bod, thank you
Min’-ya-po, something
Ma'-poo, widower
Ma4hl’-gun, a spider
Ma-koom-bal'-lin, nodding the
Mak’-ree, porcupine [head
Muk*-kee muk’kee, lazy, useless
Mo6-ree-ung-gub -ba, how far
Mut-tuk, the fishing spear
Muk’-kun, small species of lizard
Mug~gin, a bulb found growing
with wild potatoes
Mur-reen’, a star
Mit-tuk, sore
Mur-rin, sharp
Mur-ra-yung, don’t go
Mil’lin Mil’lin, @ swallow
Mah -poon-gun, a widow
Mi-kin, a long time ago
Mi-poo-yoo, a mullet
Mi-ee, the point of a spear
Num-ba, suffix signifying “at”
Na-ya, mother
Nut-yoon, fresh water
Nur-rin, eldest sister
Nun-na, elbow
Nim’-bik, bone
Narng, nose
Nur-ree-ain, ear
‘No6-ree-on, hot
Nut-wa, I
Noo-a, he
Nyeé-un, us (we)
Nod-ya, to ask
Na-na, who
Na-na, yee, who there? lit. what
who are you
Na-num-ba-yee, whose
Nooé-kwum-ba, his
Noon’-gum-ba, her
Nod-koo-wom'-ba, that
Nup-pun, breasts (female )
Nup-pung, milk
Nun’-doo, grass tree
Nyeé-hu, yes
Nur-run, a hole
Nah’-ka fo see
Nur’-rewin, the lyre bird
Nur-roon, kidneys
Noo-ree, noisy
1Nur’-ra, @ camp
Nap-poo, sleep
Nuj-ee-leé-la, possessed
Nur’-ree, the leg
No-ya, at once
Nook’-kil’-la, to swap
Nur-ré-win, flat piece of country
Nuj-ee-roo, a small bag for hold-
ing piece of colourless quartz
given to initiates
Nun’-na-yook, there
Noon-ghee, nephew
1Tn Journ. Roy. Soc. N.S. Wales,
ously called this “ ulra.”
H—Sep. 5, 1200.
Vol. xxxui., p. 119, [ have errone-
4 | Wie de
Kutthung. English equivalent.
ENRIGHT.
Kutthung. English equivalent.
Noon’-gha-gun, nzece
Na-ya4 God-ran, motherless
Nyee Nyee, merry
Nut’-ta, shallow
Noot’-ta, to taste
Nur’-run-geé, remember
Noo-ka, give
O6-pep-poo, again
O6-pik-kee, to send
Pur -ru-pa, a hut
Pook’-kul, a knot
Poor -roo-pung, smooth
Pod-ee-pir’-ra, tired
Pod-pur-ra, close
Ping’-gun, lightning
Por’-oo-look, a flea
Pup-puh, close
To6-ra-kee, at
Tur’-roo-ka, handle of stone toma-
Tod-toong, narrow [hawk
Ti-ree, the fighting boomerang
Tuk’-ke-ra, cold
Tul-lun, the tongue
T4-ral-leé, hail
'Tod-kee War-ree, soon
Tod-kun, the sun
Tod-mul-la, a creek
Tuk’-kut, a perch
U-lit’-tin, after
Wun’-da, where
Wol’long, for
Way -in-gun, will walk
W ot’-too, an opossum
Wok’-ka, on top of
Woor-roon, loud
‘Wung’-ga, to dance
‘Wor'-rine, flat
Wot-thee, mad
‘Wor-ri-keé, to see
Wom’-md, fat
Wah-kun, a crow
Wy -yee, a pup
W dr’-ri-pi-meé-nung, be qutet
Wee-ya, to tell
Wong’-gha, a corroboree
Wol-lun, the head
Wol’lun yer’-ra-kee, a head-ache
Weé-yuh, was it? (word of
interrogation)
Wol'-loo-ya, a large kangaroo
Woong-un, the youngest sister
Wok’-kha, air
Win’-nd, weé-na, spring
Wil’ling, the lip
Wur-ring, the left arm
Wok'-kul, the shoulder
Wut -ta, fire
Win'-yal-la, burnt (past tense)
Wam-boyn, kangaroo
Wit'-too, the neck
Wor’-rin, a stream
Wok’-kool, one
Wit-ta-kit, the emu
Wal’-lin-gul’-g&, the native bee
Wod6-ya, to hear
Wil’-la, @ stone
W114, black cockatoo
Won’-gul-lin, a corroboree
Woo-rod-ma, the westerly wind
Wor-ree-d, a young swan
Wun.-'gi, how
Warra gub-ba gud, pregnant
Woor’-roé-bung, the jew lizard
Weeé-ree, to sweep
Wor-rung’, frost
Wun-na, to listen
Wun’-yim-b6 wun-yim-bé, always
Wad-yee-ma, to mimic
Yer -ra-kee, bad, ill, sick
Yoon’-goo, a mountain
Yal’-l6-wal’-lin, sitting
Y4-ree, or
Yar'-rin, light (in weight)
Yar’-ruh, to swim
Yur-reel, a cloud
Yal’-lowa, the north-east
Yer-reé-4, evening
Yod-kul, the heart
Yup-pee, the ti-tree
Yuk’-ree, the wommera
LANGUAGE, ETC., ABORIGINES OF PORT STEPHENS. 115
Kutthung. English equivalent. | Kutthung. English equivalent.
Yur-ra, the sky Yeé-boo, to finish
Yum/'-bine, the scrotum | Yood-lun, to skin
Yu-ka, the flathead fish Ya-ka, mahogany
Yun'na, to walk Y4-ree, or
Yoo-ra Yoo-ra, slow Yoom-broo, in
Yen -dhee-ree, the eyebrows Yar’ ree-num-ba, our
Yal-lowa, to sit down Yit'-tuh, blunt
Yoo-ra-ba-leé 1a, to hide Yoon’-nur-ra, awkward
‘Yin-da-meé-nor, right Yer!-a-kee Yer’-raikee, painful
WEAPONS ETC. OF THE KUTTHUNG.
The whole of the articles here described with the exception of
Fig. 20 Plate 3, have been collected during wanderings amongst
the aboriginals upon the shores of Port Stephens.
Plate No. 3.
Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6, are boomerangs of the returning
variety. They are about eighteen inches'in length from point to
point and have a maximum width of two inches.
Fig. 7 is a fishing spear composed of a shaft made from the stem
of the grass tree, seven feet six inches in length, and four pieces
of hardwood twenty-five inches in length lashed together, but
with the points separated by means of pieces of wood thrust in
between them, and fastened into the shaft by means of gum and
twine. They use this spear in catching the large fish. Going
into the water as far as he can to use the spear with effect, the
native stands like a statue holding the spear obliquely in poised
hands ready to strike his prey as-it passes. Standing motionless,
he is soon surrounded by fish, and the first that passes his feet is
pierced by a certain powerful thrust. Sometimes they make use
of a boat (the bark canoe is never used nowadays) from which
they spear the fish.
Fig. 8 is the wommera or throwing stick used for the purpose
of throwing spears. It is made of two pieces of wood the larger
of which is thirty-two inches in length, with a breadth of three
inches at the end which is held in the hand and tapering toa
&
116 W. J. ENRIGHT.
point at the other end, whereon is lashed a sharpened piece of
wood, three and a half inches in length, projecting at a slight
angle. The point of this smaller piece of wood is inserted into
the end of the shaft of the spear, which is held between the thumb
and forefinger of the thrower, the broad flat end of the wommera
all the while resting in the palm of the hand.
Fig. 9 is the Bar’-ro-wa or large bullroarer used in the closing
part of the Keeparra' ceremony. It is twenty four inches in
length with a maximum breadth of three and one half inches.
Fig. 10 is a spear composed of three pieces, a sharpened hard-
wood point twenty-four inches in length, thrust into thin stem of
grass tree about thirty-four inches in length, and this in turn is.
fastened into a shaft of like material about six feet four inches in
length. Itis thrown at game or other objects by means of the
wommera previously described,
Figs. 11 and 12 are heads of basaltic rock.
Fig. 13 is also of basaltic rock, but unlike the two former
implements appears to have been used without the usual wooden
handle, and is probably a chisel.
Fig. 14 is a whet stone used for sharpening the points of the
shell fish hooks, and is of hard eruptive rock. It is four and a
half inches in length, one and three-quarter inches in breadth at
one end, and tapers at the other end to a point, which has unfor-
tunately been broken off the specimen in my possession. It has.
a uniform thickness of five-eighths of an inch.
Fig. 15 represents a shield of mangrove wood. It is thirty
inches in length with a breadth of nine inches. The handle which
is a green twig of the mangrove is fastened by boring two holes
three inches apart in the centre of the shield, and inserting into
each hole an end of the twig, the fibres of which are then separated
on the face of the shield. This instrument is covered with pipe-
clay and adorned with three red stripes.
1 See “ Initiation Ceremonies of the Aborigines of Port Stephens, New
South Wales.’’—Journ. Roy. Soc. N.S. Wales, Vol. xxx111., p. 121.
3
LANGUAGE, ETC., ABORIGINES OF PORT STEPHENS. 117
Figs. 16 and 17 are waddies used not only as clubs, but for
throwing at small animals. The former called ‘‘ Boon’-dhee” is
twenty-six inches in length, and made of the wood of the ironbark.
The latter called ‘‘Goothera,” is made of the wood of the myrtle
and is thirty-five inches in length.
Fig. 18 is a Coolamon made of mangrove wood. It is seven
inches in diameter with the same depth internally, and is used
for carrying water or holding liquid of any kind.
Fig. 19 is the Koo-pin’ and is made of the wood of the black
oak. It is used for warding off spears, and also to hinder the
flight of an opponent.
Fig. 20 is a fighting boomerang, mace of myall wood, and I
believe is from the north-western part of New South Wales.
Plate 4.
Fig. 1 A boomerang (tu-ree) of the type that does not return
when thrown. .
Figs. 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6, Boomerangs (Bar-raé-kun’) of the kind
which can be made return when thrown.
. Fig. 7 Yamstick (kun’-ni) used by the “gins” in digging for
roots, and is also their favourite weapon.
Fig. 8, Shield (Ben ‘dool-gun).
Fig. 9, A waddy called “ Bin’-na-pin” by the Kutthung.
Figs. 10, 11, and 12, Stone axe heads.
Figs. 13 and 14, Stone axes with heads of a dark eruptive rock
and handles made of a piece of vine, which is doubled around the
head and the two portions are then fastened together with bark,
and the head made more secure with wax or gum.
Fig. 15, Kod-ye-ro6, a sharpened kangaroo bone used for
combing the hair.
Fig. 16, A waddy of one of the Hunter River, (N.S. W.) tribes.
Fig. 17, The God-nan-duk’-yer whose use will be found described
in “ The Initiation ceremonies of the Aborigines of Port Stephens
N.S. Wales,” herein before referred to.
118 . R. T. BAKER.
The other articles manufactured by the Aborigines are the
canoe, fishing net, dilly bag, stone knife, belt of spun opossum
hair, barbed spear of hardwood, fish hook of shell, and a small bag
used for carrying the pieces of crystal bestowed on the young men
when they have been initiated at the Keepara.
For the arrangement of the weapons, and the preparation of
the two plates attached hereto, Iam indebted to Mr. W. J. P.
Craik of West Maitland, N. S. Wales.
Note on an OBSIDIAN “BOMB” From NEW SOUTH
WALES,
By R. T. Baker, F.L.s.,
Curator, Technological Museum, Sydney.
[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, September 5, 1900. |
AT the present time much attention is being given by Scientists
in Europe in regard to the origin of Moldavites (the generic name
by which obsidian ‘‘bombs” or ‘“‘buttons” are now generally
known), and this is one of the reasons I must give for bringing
the specimen under the notice of this Society. Another reason is
that this specimen of obsidian ‘‘bomb” differs in shape from those
usually found in Eastern Australia, a fact that may be of some
interest and use to the savants in their researches on these
remarkable bodies.
The specimens which have been recorded from Eastern Australia
are (with one exception) button-shaped, with one, two or three
flanges, although occasionally an elongated form of these occurs.
The one obtained by Charles Darwin when visiting Australia
in the Beagle 1832-6, was a particularly good specimen of this —
type of “button or bomb.” It was presented to him by Sir Thomas
OBSIDIAN BOMB FROM NEW SOUTH WALES. 119
Mitchell, who probably found it in the interior of New South
Wales. Messrs. W. H. Twelvetrees, r.c.s. and W. F. Petterd,
C.M.Z.S.,1 record a “bomb,” which from their description somewhat
resembles the one recorded in this note, for “it is without the
flange or beading, which is apparently characteristic of the buttons
obtained on the east coast.”
My specimen from its shape etc., therefore, is also comparable
to those known from West Australia, but unfortunately it is not
perfect—one-third or more of the whole having been broken off,
so that more correctly speaking it is only a portion of a “bomb”
that is now to be macroscopically described. It is worthy of note
that of the two belonging to this type of bomb, and now recorded
from Eastern Australia and Tasmania, one should have been
found in Tasmania (loc. cit. ), and the other in New South Wales.
This latter specimen, the subject of this note, is rather bright
looking, and not so dull as those I have examined from Western
Australia, although however, it strongly resembles them in every
other respect.
It has a blackish, very dark bottle-green, glassy appearance,
particularly so at the large fracture, which shows a little fire on
the edge. It measures about 1 inch in diameter and 3 inch in
thickness, and might be described in general terms as sub-globose
in shape. There is quite an absence of concentric rings, flanges,
or flutings round the edges, which are very thick and rounded.
The whole of the surface is irregularly indented with gas pores
and broken globulites of varying size, and these no doubt occur
throughout the mass, although only a few are exposed on the big
fracture above referred to. Viewed under a lens, the surface has
much the appearance of that of many meteorites, such as for
instance, the Thunda meteorite from Queensland and others. The
specific gravity is 2°-456 at 15° C., almost identically the same as
the one described from Tasmania, (loc. cit.) and showing it to be
“Obsidian” (glassy varieties of rhyolitic and trachytic rocks) and
1 Roy. Soc., Tas., 1897, p. 42.
120 R. T. BAKER.
not basaltic-glass which is usually classed as tachylyte and has
a higher specific gravity.
This specimen was discovered about twenty feet below the
surface about a mile and a half from O’Connell near Bathurst, by
Messrs. B. Walker and Lester, when sinking for gold.
I am indebted to Messrs. Rumsey and Tremain of the Technical
College for the photograph, and to Mr. Henry G. Smith for the
specific gravity.
MARRIAGE anp DESCENT amone tote AUSTRALIAN
ABORIGINES.
By R. H. Maruews, ts., Corres. Memb. Anthrop. Soc.,
Washington, U.S.A.
[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, October 8, 1900. |
In describing the social structure of a native Australian community
the first matter calling for attention is the classification of the
people into two primary divisions, called phratries, or groups—
the men of each phratry intermarrying with the women of the
Opposite one, in accordance with prescribed laws. 1. The natives
of some tracts of country are segregated into the two phratries
referred to, without any further subdivision. 2. In other locali-
ties there is a partition of each phratry into two sections, making
four divisions of the tribe. 3. Among the inhabitants of other
districts there are four subdivisions of each phratry, giving a total
of eight sections. 4. In some parts of Australia, instead of
employing the sharply defined divisions referred to, the marriages
are arranged by the elders of the tribe, who are well acquainted
with the genealogy of the people around them. This I have
designated the Zooar organisation, and is elsewhere dealt with.
ove
”
ws
‘ .
C
MARRIAGE AND DESCENT AMONG AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES. 121
Owing to the different methods of subdividing the phratries,
the details of the rules regulating the intermarriage of the men
and women, and the descent of the progeny, are somewhat varied
in each system, but the fundamental principles are the same in
them all. Whether there are two, or four, or eight partitions of
the community, every division has an independent name by which
its members are easily recognised. Frequently, but not invariably,
the men are distinguished from the women by means of a mascu-
line and a feminine form of the name of each division.
In dealing with the subject it will be necessary to supply tables
giving examples of the divisions of a tribe in each type of organi-
sation. Table No. 1 represents the Parn-kal’-la system, composed
of the two phratries only; Table No. 2 shows the Kam7‘il-a-roi
method of four divisions; and Table No.3 illustrates the Wom-by-a
type, containing eight divisions.
Table No. 1.
Phratry. Father. Mother. Son. Daughter.
A. Kirraroo Matturrin Matturri Matturrin
B. Matturri Kirrarooan Kirraroo Kirrarooan
Table No. 2.
Phratry. Father. Mother. Son. Daughter.
ie! Murri Butha' Ippai Ippatha
Kubbi Ippath Kumbo Butha
BI Kumbo Matha Kubbi Kubbitha
Ippai Kubbitha Murri Matha
Table No. 3.
Phratry. Father. Mother. Son. Daughter.
‘Choolum Ningulum Palyarin Palyareenya
Cheenum Nooralum Bungarin Bungareenya
A.
Jamerum Palyareenya Chooralum Nooralum
Yacomary Bungareeny Chingulum Ningulum
* In the Kamilaroi tribe each phratry is distinguished by a proper
name—A is called Dilbee, and B is known as Kuppathin, but I have used
the letters A and B so as to preserve uniformity in the three tables, for
purposes of reference.
122 - &. H. MATHEWS.
Table No. 3—continued.
Phratry. Father. Mother. Son. Daughter.
Chingulum Noolum Yacomary Yacomareenya
Chooralum Neenum Jamerum Neomarum
B.
Bungarin Yacomareenya Cheenum Neenum
Palyarin Neomarum Choolum Noolum
A glance at the foregoing three tables shows that each system
is exactly alike as regards the partition of the community into
the phratries A and B. It will also be observed that each phratry
is composed of certain aggregates of women, who have perpetual
succession among themselves. We will take an example from the
column headed “ mother” in phratry A in each table. In Table
No. 1, Matturrin produces Matturrin from one generation to
another. In Table No. 2, Butha produces Ippatha, and in the
next generation Ippatha is the mother of Butha, and these sections
reproduce each other in continuous alternation. In Table No. 3
we see that Ningulum has a daughter Palyareenya; Palyareenya
produces Nooralum; Nooralum is the mother of Bungareenya;
Bungareenya has a daughter Ningulum, and this series is con-
tinually repeated in the same order. If the examples had been
taken from phratry B, similar results would have been obtained.
The brothers of the girls, in every case, belong to the same phratry
and section as their sisters.
We have therefore seen that the women never pass out of the
phratry to which they belong, and that where it consists of more
than one denomination, they pass successively through each of the ©
sections of which it is composed, in the same number of generations.
It is also apparent that the daughters of each phratry become the |
wives of the men born in the opposite one. For example, in
Table No. 3, the women of phratry A are the mothers of sons and
daughters belonging to the same phratry as themselves ; and their
boys on reaching manhood must take their wives from phratry B.
In a similar manner the daughters of the women of phratry A
must obtain their husbands from among the sons of the women in
phratry B. For the reasons above stated, I have found it con-
MARRIAGE AND DESCENT AMONG AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES. 123
venient to enunciate that the phratries are formed and maintained
by the women.
Having illustrated the structure of the phratries, I will now
pass on to very briefly show the rules of marriage among the
subdivisions, and the descent of the resulting offspring. The three
tables explain themselves—the father, mother, son and daughter
of each division being shown on the same line across the page.
In Table No. 1, where the phratry is undivided, the offspring take
their mother’s denomination direct. In Table No. 2, in which
the phratry is bisected, the progeny take the name of the comple-
mentary division in the mother’s phratry, thus,—Butha’s children
are Ippai and Ippatha, and Ippatha’s progeny are Kumbo and
Butha. In some districts, instead of the marital laws following
the order set out in the table, there are what I have termed
“alternative” marriages, for example—a Murri, male, marries an
Ippai, female, and vice versa; a Kubbi, male, takes a Kumbo,
female, as his partner, and vice versa. The descent of the children,
however, is not affected by this variation—the offspring of an
Ippatha, for example, being always Kumbo and Butha, no matter
whether she is united to a Kubbi or a Murri husband.
Table No. 3 shows the Wom-by’-a organisation, in which the
phratry is divided into four sections. By the ordinary or “direct”
rules of marriage, Choolum takes Ningulum as his spouse, and the
issue of the union are Palyarin and Palyareenya. But Choolum
can exercise the alternative right of marrying a Nooralum woman?
and in such case the offspring will be Bungarin and Bungareenya.
Again, Cheenum takes Nooralum as his regular mate, and his
“alternative” wife is Ningulum, the name of the resulting progeny
being determined by the mother, as before. Similarly, Jamerum
can marry either a Palyareenya ora Bungareenya woman, and
Yacomary’s wife is Bungareenya, with the alternative of Palyar-
eenya. In the pairs of sections, Chingulum and Chooralum,
Bungarin and Palyarin, in phratry B, marriage and descent follow
the same alternative rules, mutatis mutandis. In consequence of
polygamy being sanctioned, it is possible for a man to take one
124 R. H. MATHEWS.
wife from the “direct” section, and another spouse from the
‘‘alternative” division—the nomenclature of the progeny being
regulated as above explained.
It has been stated in an earlier page that the children belong
to the same phratry as their mother, and in many tribes the totem
is also handed down in the same way. In carefully examining
tables of genealogies, however, it is quite clear that marriage,
relationship and descent, depend mainly on the father’s side of
the house—a law which applies with the same cogency to the
Wombya, Kamilaroi and Parnkalla systems. The rule is equally
persistent in the Tooar type of organisation, which I have
described elsewhere.
The people of both sexes marry an individual belonging to the
same phratry as their father. Taking an example from Table
No. 3, we see that Chingulum marries Noolum, of the same phratry
as his father Yacomary. Noolum takes as her husband a Chin-
gulum man, belonging to the phratry of her father Palyarin. By
employing Table No. 2, for our example, it is observed that Ippai
marries a Kubbitha woman belonging to the same phratry as his
father Murri. And Kubbitha marries Ippai, a man of her father
Kumbo’s phratry.
All the people, men and women alike, marry an individual
belonging to the same section of their father’s phratry as that to
which his mother belongs. By taking our example from Table
No. 3, we find that Choolum’s father is Palyarin, and Palyarin’s
mother is Ningulum. Choolum marries a Ningulum woman, who
therefore belongs to his father’s mother’s section. Again, Nin-
gulum’s father is Yacomary, and Yacomary’s mother is Noolum.
Noolum mates with Chingulum, the name of her father’s mother’s
section. Using Table No. 2, for an example, it is seen that
Murri’s father is Ippai, and the mother of Ippai is Butha; Murri
marries Butha, his father’s mother’s section name. Also, Butha’s
father is Kubbi, and Kubbi’s mother is Matha. Butha is married
to Murri, the section name of her father’s mother.
MARRIAGE AND DESCENT AMONG AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES. 125
The children of both sexes take the section name of their father’s
father. By employing an example from Table No. 3, it is seen
that Choolum has a son Palyarin, and Palyarin is the father of
Choolum, the section of his father’s father. Again, Choolum has
a son Palyarin, and Palyarin has a daughter Noolum, the name
of the section to which her father’s father, Choolum, belongs,
Taking an example from Table No. 2, we observe that Murri’s
son is Ippai, and Ippai has a son Murri, the section name of his
father’s father. Also, Kumbo has a son Kubbi, and Kubbi has a
daughter Butha, the section to which her father’s father belongs.
In the Kamilaroi and Parnkalla systems, the children, in addition,
take the section name of their mother’s mother, (which in their
case is identical with that of their father’s father); but this does
not apply to the Wombya, owing to their more perfect system of
subdividing the phratries.
In the three last preceding paragraphs, examples have not been
supplied from Table No. 1, illustrating the Parnkalla system of
marriage and descent, it being thought that the simplicity of the
table renders explanation unnecessary.
A man takes a wife who is the daughter either of his father’s
cousin, or of his mother’s cousin ; and a woman likewise marries
a man who is the son of a cousin of her father or of her mother.
The cousin here meant is the child of one’s father’s sister, or of
one’s mother’s brother. This statement can be illustrated by
using a diagram, with distinctive letters, which can be referred
to, as follows :—
Diagram No. 1.
Brother and Sister.
C D
B | Cousins. E
re Husband and Wife. ao
I will commence with examples from the Wombya organisation,
represented in Table No.3. The pedigree of a man’s wife, traced
126 R. H. MATHEWS.
through his father, is as follows :—A=Choolum; B= A’s father,
Palyarin; C= B’s father, Choolum ; D=C’s sister, Noolum; E=
D’s son, Yacomary; F=E’s daughter, Ningulum. By the table
we see that A =Choolum, marries F = Ningulum, the daughter of
his father’s father’s sister’s son—that is to say, the daughter of
his father’s cousin. By following the pedigree of any given man’s
wife through his mother, it can be shewn that Chingulum, for
example, marries Noolum, the daughter of his mother’s mother’s
brother’s daughter, or in other words, the daughter of his mother’s
cousin.
The pedigree of a woman’s husband, if traced through her father,
can be run out as follows:—A=Ningulum; B=A’s father,
Yacomary; C=B8’s father, Chingulum ; D=C’s sister, Ningulum;
E= D’s son, Palyarin; F = E’s son, Choolum ; then A = Ningulum
marries F = Choolum, who is the son of her father’s father’s sister’s
son—that is, the son of her father’s cousin. In a similar way it
can be represented, by running out a woman’s husband’s pedigree
through her own mother, that she herself marries the son of her
mother’s mother’s brother’s daughter, or in other words, the son
of her mother’s cousin.
The same rules hold good in the Kamilaroi organisation, as the
following example from Table No. 2 will explain :—A=Kumbo;
B=A’s father, Kubbi; C=B’s father, Kumbo; D=C’s sister,
Butha; E=D?’s son, Ippai; F=E’s daughter, Matha. Then A=
Kumbo marries F= Matha, the daughter of his father’s father’s
sister’s son—that is, the daughter of his father’s cousin.
An example from Table No. | will illustrate that the same laws
also apply to the Parnkalla organisation :—A= Kirraroo; B=A’s
father, Matturri; C=B’s father, Kirraroo ; D=C’s sister, Kirra- .
rooan; E=D?’s son, Kirraroo; F=E’s- daughter, Matturrin.
Then, A=Kirraroo marries F = Matturrin, the daughter of his
father’s father’s sister’s son, or, the daughter of his father’s cousin.
One example each in the Kamilaroi and Parnkalla systems has
been thought sufficient, because the rules are analogous to those
MARRIAGE AND DESCENT AMONG AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES, 127
given in the Wombya organisation, which has been illustrated
more fully, in order to avoid repetition.
In the Kamilaroi and Parnkalla systems, according to the tables,
the men, as well as the women, can marry the offspring of their
father’s sister, or of their mother’s brother, subject to conditions
to be mentioned presently. This also applies to the “alternative”
marriages of the Wombya. By using a diagram this can be made
more clear :—
Diagram No. 2.
Brother and Sister.
. Cousins.
Aaa D
Taking an example from the Kamilaroi system it can be demon-
strated that A=Kubbi; B=A’s father Kumbo; C=B’s sister
Butha; D=C’s daughter Ippatha. Kubbi marries Ippatha, the
daughter of his father’s sister. If we had traced the blood through
Kubbi’s mother Matha, it could have been shown that he married
his mother’s brother’s daughter. Again, if A be a female, the
genealogy of her husband can be followed, in the same way, through
her father’s sister, or her mother’s brother, showing that she
marries a son of one of these. If we further consider Kubbi= 4A,
and assume that his father, Kumbo = B, is an emu, then B’s sister
Cis also an emu.’ Referring to diagram No. 2, it is apparent
that A is the son of an Emu man, B; and that D, his wife, is the
daughter of an Emu woman, C.
Putting the above example in another form, it will be seen that
the son of a brother marries the daughter of a sister ; and not only
so, but the son of an emu marries the daughter of anemu. To
prevent the union of persons of such consanguinity there are
customary laws in aboriginal society which make it incumbent
that the brother and sister relationship here referred to shall be
collateral or tribal only, and not of the full blood. It may not
* Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc., Q., Vol. x., p. 22.
” @rey
na |
sy r
«
128 R. H. MATHEWS.
be unnecessary to state here that by following the ordinary rules
of marriage in the Wombya organisation, as represented in Table
No. 3, a brother’s children’s children intermarry with a sister’s
children’s children—a relationship sufficiently wide not to require
any further restrictions.
Selecting an illustration from the Wombya system we can show
by Diagram No. 2 that A=Choolum; B= A’s father Palyarin 5
C=B’s sister Palyareenya; D=C’s daughter Nooralum. Then
Choolum, as his “alternative” wife, marries Nooralum, the daughter
of his father’s sister. It can easily be shown that Choolum’s
alternative spouse may also be the daughter of his mother’s brother.
And if A bea female, the genealogy can be varied as in the
Kamilaroi example last given. It also appears that if A’s father
Palyarin, B, is an eaglehawk, then B’s sister, Polyareenya, is like-
wise an eaglehawk. According to the diagram, A is the son of
an eaglehawk man, B; and A’s wife, D, is the daughter of an
eaglehawk woman, C. Asin the Kamilaroi example, this brother
and sister relationship must be titular instead of direct.
It is not thought necessary to furnish an example of the marriage
rules, according to diagram 2, in the Parnkalla system, pecan
they are similar to those of the Kamilaroi.
In examining each pair of sections in Table No. 3, itis observed
that Choolum is Cheenum’s father’s (Bungarin’s) female cousin’s
(Neomarum’s) son, and also that Cheenum possesses the same
relationship to Choolum. Again, Choolum marries Cheenum’s
cousin, and Cheenum marries Choolum’s cousin. It is likewise
apparent that Jamerum is Yacomary’s father’s (Chingulum’s)
female cousin’s (Neenum’s) son; and that Yacomary is related in
the same manner to Jamerum. Also, Jamerum marries Yacomary’s
cousin, and Yacomary maries Jamerum’s cousin. Similarly it can
be shown that the pairs of sections, Chingulum and Chooralum,
and also Bungarin and Palyarin, are respectively related to each
other in the same way. ‘The relationships referred to in this para-
graph account for certain pairs of sections, (e.g., Choolum and
Cheenum), being placed together in the table.
MARRIAGE AND DESCENT AMONG AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES. 129
As indicated in Table No. 3, Choolum and Palyarin are related
to each other as father and son in continuous alternation, and I
have found that they have certain totems which descend with them.
Thus, Choolum bandicoot is the father of Palyarin bandicoot, and
in the next generation Palyarin bandicoot is the father of Choolum
bandicoot. The other pairs of sections have aggregates of totems
in the same manner, as enumerated in Table No. 4, hereunder :—
Table No. 4.
; (Choolum Black-snake, death-adder, bandicoot, eagle-hawk,
i Palyarin bloodwood, currant bush, tiger-snake.
~~
eo °
‘6 |Cheenum Fire, opossum, black-duck, emu, rain, corella,
= | Bungarin scorpion, thunder.
os Jamerum (Iguana, kangaroo, spinnifex, dingo, lightning,
>, |Chooralum | crow, carpet-snake, pipe-clay.
»
oO
‘5 |Yacomary ;Common hawk, yam, frog, white crane, mopoke,
= \Chingulum ¢ galah.
In treating of the “alternative” marriages in an earlier page
it was shown that Cheenum could also marry Ningulum, in which
case his son would be Palyarin ; and ina similar manner Choolum
could be the father of Bungarin. With totems descending from
the father to his offspring, in tribes where polygamy is practised,
Cheenum’s totem could be transmitted to both Bungarin and
Palyarin, supposing he takes a wife from each of the sections over
which he possesses potential marital rights. I have discovered
that, in consequence of the close blood-relationship referred to in
the last few paragraphs, the divisions Choolum, Palyarin, Cheenum
and Bungarin, are very friendly amongst themselves, and the same
totems are more or less in use among these four sections, whom I
have accordingly called Moiety A. In other words, the totems
particularized in Table No. 4 as belonging primarily to Choolum
and Palyarin, are also to some extent common to Cheenum and
Bungarin, and wice versa. The same remarks will apply in all
respects to the remaining four sections, who are distinguished as
Moiety B, in Table No. 4. The men and women of Moiety A
I—Oct. 3, 1900.
130 R. H. MATHEWS.
are related as brothers-in-law and sisters-in-law respectively to the
people of Moiety B, and conversely. In general], the progeny,
boys and girls alike, take the totem of their male parent.
Marriage between persons of the same totem is forbidden, if
they belong to families residing in neighbouring hunting grounds,
but where the parties to the union come from remote districts,
and therefore cannot be any blood connection, I have observed
individuals of the same totem living as man and wife. Mr. T. M.
Sutton, in speaking of the Adjadurah tribe in 1887, refers to a
man who wasa ghardie (emu), being married to a ghardie woman.
The following are a few of the principal tribes inhabiting the
country about Elsey Creek, Katherine. and Roper Rivers, reach-
ing northerly to Wilton and Goyder Rivers, and onward to Glyde’s
Inlet on the north coast of Arnheim’s Jand, Northern Territory.
Their names are the Yungmunnee, Charmong, Mungerry, Yookull,
Hongalla, and Koorungo. ‘They have an organisation containing
eight sections, similar to those given in Table No. 3, but bearing
a nomenclature more or less different. These eight sections, how
they intermarry, and the names of the resulting offspring is repre-
sented in tabular form hereunder :—
Table No 5.
Phratry. Father. Mother. Son. Daughter.
Eemitch Inkagalla Uwallaree Imballaree
Uwannee Imbawalla Uwungaree Imbongaree
A
Unmarra Imballaree Urwalla Imbawalla
‘Tabachin Imbongaree Yungalla Inkagalla
Yungalla Immadenna Tabachin Tabadenna
Urwalla Imbannee Unmarra Inganmarra
B
Uwungaree Tabadenna Unwannee Imbannee
|\Uwallaree Inganmarra Eemitch Immadenna
These are the divisions of the Yungmunnee tribe about Elsey
Creek, and their equivalence to those of the Wombya is as follows:
Eemitch is equal to Choolum, Uwannee to Cheenum, Unmarra to
1 Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc., S.A., Vol. 11., 3rd Session, p. 17.
MARRIAGE AND DESCENT AMONG AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES, 131
Jamerumw, and Tabachin to Yacomary in phratry A. Again,
Yungalla corresponds to Chingulum, Urwalla to Chooralum,
Uwungaree to Bungarin, and U wallaree to Palyarin, in Phratry B.
All that has been said in the foregoing pages in regard to the
Wombya tribe, represented in Tables Nos. 3 and 4, applies equally
in every respect to the sections and phratries illustrated in Table
No.5;
A brief reference to the geographic distribution of the tribes
adopting each type of organisation dealt with in this article may
not be without interest. The country inhabited by the people of
the Wombya type of division comprises about three-fourths of the
Northern Territory of South Australia, with extensive regions in
Queensland and Western Australia. The territory occupied by
tribes possessing the Kamilaroi system extends over about two-
thirds of New South Wales, the greater part of Queensland, a
wide zone through the centre of South Australia, and more than
half of Western Australia. The Parnkalla organisation includes
nearly the whole of Victoria, about a third of New South Wales,
part of Queensland, and a considerable portion of Western Aus-
tralia and South Australia.
Among the tribes on the south-east coast of New South Wales
and Victoria, the southern coast of South Australia, part of the
west coast of Western Australia, and a tract of country reaching
inland easterly and southerly from Port Darwin, in the Northern
Territory, the Zooar type of organisation is in force, with various
modifications.
APPENDIX.
Some Tribes or Cape YorK PENINSULA, QUEENSLAND.
That portion of Cape York Peninsula extending from the Cape
to about the fifteenth parallel of south latitude, is occupied by a
considerable number of tribes, out of which may be enumerated
the Yandigan, Merrikaba, Kowanatty, Gametty, Joonkoonjee,
Tannazootee, Yeldivo, Kokinno, Kamdheu and Kookeealla. Of
these I am best acquainted with the Joonkoonjee tribe, on the
132 R. H. MATHEWS.
Batavia River, whose organisation is after the Kamilaroi type,
possessing four sections, with rules of marriage and descent as in
the following table—the males and females using the same names
for their respective divisions. The dialects spoken from the
Jardine to the Batavia River and Pioneer Downs, or farther south,
are similar in many respects. My best thanks are due to the
Rev. N. Hey, of Mapoon, and other gentlemen on the Peninsula,
for assisting me whilst engaged in obtaining the following inform-
ation.
Table No. 6.
Phratry. Father. Mother. Offspring.
Lankenamee Pakwickee Pamarung
Jamakunda :
Namegooree Pamarung Pakwickee
S ( Pakwickee Lankenamee Namegooree
Kamanutta
( Pamarung Namegooree Lankenamee
The pair of sections forming the phratry Jamakunda invariably
marry the Kamanutta pair, but the rules of intermarriage of the
individual sections constituting the phratries vary in different
parts of the tribal territory. For example, in some districts instead
of the rules of marriage following the order laid down in Table
No. 6, a Lankenamee, male, provided there is no blood relationship,
may marry a Pamarung, female, and vice versa. The descent of
the offspring 1s not disturbed by this irregularity—the children
of a Pakwickee mother being always Pamarung, irrespectively of
the section name of her husband. These rules apply, mutatis
mutandis, to all the other sections.
Athough marriages are generally regulated by the order of
names in Table No. 6, and the rules given in the last paragraph,
there are, further, what I have designated ‘family, or sectional”
regulations, under which a man may, in certain cases only, take
a wife bearing his own section name, but of a different totemic
nomenclature. For example, a Lankenamee shark, belonging to
a distant lineage, might be permitted to take as his wife a Lan-
kenamee grasshopper.
MARRIAGE AND DESCENT AMONG AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES. Lao
The sons and daughters of certain women are betrothed in
infancy to the daughters and sons of other women—these betrothals
being of course in accordance with the laws illustrated in Table
No. 6. For the purpose of providing against contingencies, two
or three girls are usually betrothed to the same boy ; or more boys
than one may be allotted to the same girl. d/eeoogoo is a mutual
term of relationship between the mother of the girl and the mother
of the boy.
The totems, called by the natives eedeete, belonging to each
phatry are common to the two sections of which it is composed ;
thus, the totems attached to Jamakunda are common to the
sections Lankenamee and Namegooree; and the Kamanutta
totems are common to the Packwickee and Pamarang sections.
The following are some of the totems attached to the phratry
Jamakunda :—black snake, shark, emu, native dog, bush rat, rock,
stone, ironbark tree, wattle tree, north wind, black cloud, yams,
native cat, kangaroo-grass, carpet snake, kangaroo, crow, common
hawk, dove, white fish, silver fish, bronze pigeon, sea, fresh water,
a dead man, grasshopper, green ants, bloodwood tree, fire, and
wind. Among the totems of the Kamanutta phratry may be
enumerated the tea-tree, sun, moon, iguana, plain turkey, opossum,
pelican, common grass, bee, fly, frog, black duck, lizard, bark of a
tree, gum, thunder, water-lily, sea-shell, turtle, butterfly, ibis, crab
and beetle.
The children take the phratry and totem name of the mother;
they do not, however, belong to her section, but take the name of
the other section in their mother’s phratry, as exemplified in
Table No. 6.
When the boys are about twelve years of age, they are taken
from the control of their mothers by the chief men, and are passed
through a course of initiatory formalities, analogous in their main
features to those practised by the Kamilaroi,' Dippil,” and Koom-
* Proc. Roy. Soc., Victoria, Vol. rx., N.S., pp. 187 —- 178.
? American Anthropoligist, Vol. 11., N.S., pp. 189 —144.
134 R. H. MATHEWS.
bangeary' tribes, described by me elsewhere. Scars are raised
upon their bodies, the septum of the nose is pierced, and a front
tooth is punched out of each youth, during the ceremonies. The
novices are required to pass through the ordeal of inauguration at
not less than three meetings of the tribes for that purpose, extend-
ing perhaps ever a period of several years, and at the conclusion
of the proceedings they are presented with spears and other weapons
and released from certain prohibitions regarding food-——for example
they may now eat eggs, iguana, Wc., which were before forbidden
to them.
A ‘bullroarer,”’ called by the natives pzpe-ra-chy, is used by the
tribes on these occasions; it is generally made of bloodwood, of
the usual shape, with a hole drilled in the smaller end, through
which a long string is fastened, to enable the operator to swing it
round his head. The size of the instrument varies from about
sixteen to twenty inches, and is often ornamented with one longi-
tudinal and several transverse bars painted in red ochre on one
or both sides.
Until a youth has graduated in all the inaugural ceremonies of
his tribe, and been admitted to the rights and privileges of
aboriginal manhood, he cannot take a wife, or be present at any
of the councils or deliberations of the men.
Message sticks? are used in summoning tribes for festive or
hostile corroborees, and as friendly reminders to relatives at a
distance. ‘They consist of small pieces of wood, four or five inches
in length, with quadrilateral designs and other rude markings cut
upon their surface. Sometimes a bunch of feathers, bound into
a cylindrical form by means of string, and about ten inches long,
is used for the same purpose.
* Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., Philad., Vol. xxxvit., pp. 53 — 66.
*See my article on the different kinds of ‘“ Bullroarers’’—Journ.
Anthop. Inst., Lond., xxvur., 52 - 60.
3 The reader is referred to my paper on ‘‘ Message Sticks’”—American
Anthropologist, X., 288 — 297.
Co
OU
MARRIAGE AND DESCENT AMONG AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES. i
Infanticide, abortion, and cannibalism are largely practised
among all the tribes on the Peninsula in those districts where the
natives are still in a comparatively wild state. The bones of
adult victims, rolled in strips of the bark of the tea-tree, and
fastened with string passed around, are frequently carried by the
relatives of the deceased for considerable periods.
The same divisional system, but with different names for the
sections, extends from Cape York southerly till it adjoins the
Koonjan and other tribes, who use the four divisions reported by
me in Table No. 3, contained in a paper’ contributed to this
Society in 1899.
Koonjan, Warkeemon, Goothanto, Mykoolon and Kogai com-
The equivalence of the four sections of the
munities may be tabulated as follows :—
Table No. 7.
Koonjan | Warkeemon) Goothanto | Mykoolon Kogai.
Community. | Community. | Community. | Community. | Community.
1. Ajeereena | Karpungie| Erainyer | Jimalingo | Woongo
2. Arenynung|Cheekungie, Arara Bathingo | Koobaroo
3. Perrynung | Kellungie | Loora Maringo ~~ Bunburri
4. Mahngale | Koopungie|) Awonger | Yowingo | Koorgilla
+ Joura. Roy. Soc., N.S.W., XxxXI1I., pp. 108 - 111.
Ve
oy
a*r
136 H. G. SMITH.
On THE CONSTITUENT or PEPPERMINT ODOUR occur-
RING IN MANY EUCALYPTUS OILS.—Parr I.
By Henry G. Smirga, F.c.s., Assistant Curator, Technological
Museum, Sydney.
[Received and read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, October 3, 1900. ]
_ AmoneG the Eucalypts of Australia there are many species known
vernacularly as Peppermints, on account of the marked peppermint
odour given by the leaves when crushed, or from the odour of the
oil when distilled. |
The first Eucalyptus oil was obtained from a New South Wales’
species known as the Sydney Peppermint, Lucalyptus piperita,Sm.,
which species grows plentifully in the neighbourhood of Sydney.
The following quotation is from page 227 of ‘‘ White’s Voyage to
New South Wales,” published 1790 :—‘‘ The name of Peppermint
Tree has been given to this plant by Mr. White on account of
the very great resemblance between the essential oil drawn from
its leaves and that obtained from the peppermint, Mentha piperita,
which grows in England. This oil was found by Mr. White to be
much more eflicaceous in removing all cholicky complaints than
that of the English peppermint, which he attributes to its being
less pungent and more aromatic. A, quart of the oil has been
sent by him to Mr. Wilson.”
Although the leaves of this species have a well marked pepper-
mint odour, yet, the constituent giving this odour is only present
in very small quantity in the oil; this is also the case with many
other species, the type HZ. amygdalina, for instance, which is also
known in some localities as peppermint. From our experiments —
we find that this peppermint constituent occurs in greatest amount
in the oil obtained from the leaves of LZ. dives, next in that of
£. radiata, and in somewhat lesser amount from the leaves of
CONSTITUENT OF PEPPERMINT ODOUR IN EUCALYPTUS OILS. 137
£. Sieberiana, and from £. coriacee and several others. If sub-
sequent investigation should show this constituent to have special
value for medicinal or other purposes, it can be obtained com-
mercially from the leaves of both £. dives and #. radiata, so that
the supply can be assured. In the oils of those species mentioned,
this peppermint constituent occurs with phellandrene as the
principal terpene, and in many of them with an almost entire
absence of eucalyptol. Although occurring principally with
phellandrene, yet, this terpene need not necessarily be present,
as the peppermint constituent has been found occurring in the oil
of at least one species in which phellandrene is quite absent ; but
generally, it may be stated as occurring in the oils of those species
which are pronounced phellandrene bearing ones, and which make
such a well defined group of Eucalyptus trees.
The yield of oil obtained, on a commercial scale, from the leaves
and terminal branchlets of #. dives ranges from two to three per
cent.; the oil is usually almost colourless, owing to the small
quantity of free acid present. The crude oil has a low specific
gravity 0882 to 0'888 at 15° C., only a trace of Eucalyptol appears
to be present at any time, but there is always much phellandrene.
The optical rotation of the crude oil in a 100 mm. tube ranges
from —55-7° to — 63-9° the higher rotation occurring during the
Australian spring months, the lower during the winter months.
On rectifying a sample of the oil of Z. dives distilled in October,
only two per cent. distilled below 172° C.; between 172° and
200° C.' 60 per cent. was obtained; between 200° and 227° C.
13 per cent. came over, and between 227° C. and 240° C. 20 per
cent. distilled. The peppermint constituent occurs in greatest
amount in the fraction 227° to 240° C., and it was thus possible
to obtain it in a crude condition by ordinary distillation.
The specific gravity at 15° C. of the fraction 172° - 200° C. was
0°8593, of that obtained between 200° and 227° C. 0:8936, and
of that between 227° and 240° C. 0-9318.
1 These temperatures are corrected to the nearest whole degree.
7"
The optical rotation of the first fraction in a 100 mm. tube was
—73°85°, while that of the third fraction had been reduced to
—9°4°. A larger quantity of the oil (two litres) was then distilled
138 H. G. SMITH.
when practically the same results and percentages were obtained.
The constituents in the fraction 227° — 240° C. suffered slight
decomposition when distilled under atmospheric pressure, as
indicated by the odour and the darkening on keeping. When the
oil was distilled under reduced pressure no decomposition took
place. The oil when thus obtained under reduced pressure is of
a slight yellowish colour, having a strong taste and odour of
peppermint, and for commercial purposes might be used as thus
obtained, or, the same result may be brought about by steam
distillation of the fraction 227° - 240°C. When placed upon the
tongue it has a hot and penetrating effect, quickly diffusing a
sense of warmth over the chest. When taken in small quantities
it appears to act efficaciously in the early stages of a cold.
Whether it has value in this or other directions is worthy of
determination by the medical profession.
The peppermint constituent when obtained as pure as possible,
possesses an odour of peppermint which is much more pronounced
when diffused, but the peppermint taste is increased exceedingly,
and it is also much more pungent than the oil of the fraction
from which it was obtained. It is most probably, owing to the
strong odour given by this constituent when diffused, that has
caused the name ‘‘peppermint” to be attached to so many different
species of Eucalyptus. The oil of many of these species, however,
does not contain the constituent in sufficient quantities to enable
it to be isolated, or even readily detected ; and it is probable that
many of theconstituents found in larger amount insome Eucalyptus
oils are also present in minute quantities in a great many others,
their characteristic odour being more readily detected in the leaf
than in the oil after extraction.
The only chemical references to this peppermint constituent,
that I can find are in Messrs. Schimmel & Co’s. semi-annual
reports for April 1888, and April 1890, where referring to the
CONSTITUENT OF PEPPERMINT ODOUR IN EUCALYPTUS OILS. 139
oil of #. hemastoma, they say, that probably this contains
menthone. There appears to be but one constituent in Eucalyptus
oils having this peppermint odour. We have distilled the oil from
the leaves of #. hemastoma from two localities and failed to detect
this peppermint constituent in the oil. This species grows plenti-
fully in New South Wales, and is known as ‘‘ White or Scribbly
Gum.” Mr. Smith, the author of this species, named £. heemastoma
in 1797, no doubt from trees growing at Sydney, in the neighbour-
hood of which it occurs plentifully, and as the characteristic con-
stituents of identical species of Eucalyptus appear to be constant,
there can be no doubt that the oil referred to’ by Schimmel & Co.
was not obtained from #. hemastoma, but from another species.
The question of constancy of chemical constituents in oils of the
same species of EKucalypts will be fully discussed in the forthcom-
ing work by Mr. R. T. Baker and myself.
Now that this peppermint constituent has been isolated it is
found not to be menthone, as it has a much higher specific gravity,
a higher boiling point, has probably no rotation, and the crystalline
product obtained on reduction by sodium in alcoholic solution is
not menthol, but quite a distinct substance and most probably
new. Its taste and odour also differ from menthone. In boiling
point and specific gravity it more closely resembles pulegone, but
the same differences present themselves as with menthone. We
are indebted to Messrs. Schimmel & Co. of Leipzig for samples of
both menthone and pulegone, that firm having presented to the
Technological Museum a very fine collection of the several con-
stituents occurring in essential oils. It is probable that the
peppermint constituent found in Eucalyptus oils is a new ketone,
and in the second part of this paper I purpose dealing more fully
_with its chemical reactions and peculiarities.
EXPERIMENTAL.
Purification of the constituent.
The fraction 227° — 240° C. was frequently agitated for about
three weeks with a saturated solution of sodium bisulphite, adding
140 H. G. SMITH.
a little alcohol. The combination did not readily take place.
After some days a crystalline compound formed which continued
to increase. On adding water the crystals dissolved, the unacted
upon oil separating. The aqueous portion was removed and
decomposed with caustic soda solution. An oil at once separated
in good quantity showing that a compound had been formed. The
separated oil was well washed and then steam distilled. As thus
obtained it is almost colourless, and has an intense peppermint
taste and peppermint odour; it is soluble in alcohol, ether, and
ordinary solvents, and is slightly soluble in water.
Optical rotation.
The rotation in a 100 mm, tube was —0°35°, It is probable
that the constituent itself is inactive, and that the slight rotation
was caused by the presence of a minute quantity of the aromatic
aldehyde present in these oils, previously supposed to be cumin-
aldehyde ; this itself is levorotatory and would be extracted with
sodium bisulphite together with the peppermint constituent, and
be present in the final product. That a small quantity of an
aldehyde is present is indicated by the slight pink colour obtained
when tested by Schiff’s reaction, but the quantity present can be
but small as this aldehyde answers to Schiff’s reaction readily,
besides easily forming a crystalline oxime. It has not been
possible so far to form a crystalline oxime with the peppermint
_ constituent, it remaining persistently as a thick oil; when dissolved
in alcohol it had no rotation.
The presence of a small quantity of this aldehyde in the oil of
E. dives again illustrates the persistency with which minute
g p y.
quantities of the several constituents maintain their presence in
these oils.
Specific gravity.
The specific gravity of the purified material was °9393 at +4. ¢
Boiling point.
The purified material boils at 224 — 225° C.
CONSTITUENT OF PEPPERMINT ODOUR IN EUCALYPTUS oILs. 141]
Molecular value.
1/1816 gramme in 27°3 grammes of glacial acetic acid gave a
depression in the freezing point of 1-085 degrees; the molecular
value from this is 155.
C,,H,,0 = 154.
The crystalline substance formed on reduction.
On treating a solution in alcohol with metallic sodium, and
afterwards adding water, the thick oily substance which separated
was seen, after some time, to contain crystals. The aqueous
portion was removed and the oily mass treated with slightly
diluted alcohol in the cold. The crystals were but slightly acted
upon and it was thus possible to remove the adhering oily
impurities by dilute alcohol alone. That the crystals can be thus
purified, was seen by the fact that as thus obtained, they melted
at the correct temperature. The crystals are but slightly soluble
in ether, so that they can be thus purified also. The crystals were
found to be exceedingly soluble in chloroform from which on
evaporation oblique needle crystals were obtained. The best
method of purification was found to be to remove all adhering
impurities by alcohol and ether, drying, and afterwards dissolving
in chloroform, filtering, and allowing to crystallise. The crystais
were colourless, they were slightly soluble in acetic ether, insoluble
in acetone, and insoluble in alkalis.
The melting point was 155 -156° C.; the substance did not
decompose on melting, and on cooling crystallised very finely in
long prisms of radiating crystals, which polarised exceedingly
well. Its slight solubility in both alcohol and ether may be
characteristic.
Determination of the alcohol in fraction 227 — 240° C.
An attempt to isolate an alcohol from this fraction with phthalic
anhydride was not successful, no alcoholic substance being obtained.
A portion of the oil of this fraction was then boiled for three
hours with acetic anhydride and anhydrous sodium acetate, treat-
ing in the usual way and saponifying the product, 1:3236 grammes
of the oil thus obtained was heated halfan-hour with 10 ce.
142 H. G. SMITH.
alcoholic potash of known value, and titrated with semi-normal
sulphuric acid, the saponification figure was 42°3 from which,
taking the molecular weight of the ester as 196, we obtain 14:8
per cent. of ester or 12-0 per cent. of alcohol originally existing
in this fraction, considering the molecular formula to be C,,H,,0.
Only a very small quantity of ester is present originally in the
crude oil of H. dives, so that an aromatic alcohol is shown to be
present in small amount in this oil.
I wish to express my thanks to my colleague Mr. R. T.
Baker, F.u.s., for botanical assistance in the preparation of this
paper.
On an EUCALYPTUS OIL contrarnine 60 Per Cent. oF
GERANYL ACETATE.
By Henry G. Smiru, F.c.s., Assistant Curator, Technological
Museum, Sydney.
[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, November 7, 1900. |
In a paper by Mr. R. T. Baker and myself, “On the Darwinias
of Port Jackson and their essential oils,” read before this Society,
December 6th, 1899, we showed that geraniol occurs in large
quantities in the oil distilled from the leaves of Darwinia fascr-
cularis, this alcohol can, therefore, be obtained in commercial
quantities from plants belonging to the Myrtacece.
The indigenous flora of Australia is exceedingly rich in plants
belonging to this natural order, and it is thus probable that we
shall eventually find other plants belonging to the Myrtaceae,
besides Darwinia fascicularis and the present Eucalyptus, from
which geraniol may be obtainable on a commercial scale.
During the research on the Eucalypts of New South Wales and
their essential oils, now being undertaken at this Museum, the
EUCALYPTUS OIL CONTAINING GERANYL ACETATE. 143
presence of aromatic alcohols has often been detected ; either free
or combined as esters, and in a paper before this Society’ it was
shown that in the oil of #. patentinervis, either geraniol or linalol
was present as free alcohol; from the results of this research it
was probably geraniol.
The species of Eucalyptus now being described, the oil of which
contains such a large percentage of geraniol, is known locally as
‘Paddy’s River Box’; its botanical name is Hucalyptus macarthurt.
It grows plentifully in the Wingello district of this colony, on the
banks of Paddy’s River it is found as a fine foliaceous tree. The
oil obtained from this species has no resemblance to ordinary
Eucalyptus oi], and belongs to none of the well defined chemical
groups of these oils. It thus becomes still more dificult to define
in a simple sentence what Eucalyptus oil really is.
The crude oil of #. macarthuri, obtained by steam distillation
from fresh material of leaves and terminal branchlets, is reddish
in colour owing to the presence of a smal] amount of free acid in
the original oil. In appearance, odour, etc., it resembles more
than anything else, the crude oil of Darwinia fascicularis, but
the higher boiling portion consists largely of eudesmol, the stear-
optene of Eucalyptus oil, which constituent is absent in Darwinia.
Although containing this stearoptene no crystals were obtained
when the crude oil was placed in a freezing mixture, eudesmol
being so exceedingly soluble in the oil.
The free acid present could not be determined in the usual way
because it was found during the research on the oil of Darwinia
fascicularis, that saponification of geranyl acetate takes place
readily in the cold, if alcoholic potash be used. Full description
of the rates of saponification is given in the paper referred to.
The free acid was readily removed from the oil of #. macarthuri,
by agitating with a very dilute aqueous solution of potash, the
ester not being saponified by this treatment; the oil was after-
wards well washed and dried. Saponification of the oil before
* Proc. Roy Soc., N. S. Wales, 1900, p. 74.
144 H. G. SMITH.
and after this treatment gives the amount of free acid present.
The crude oil, after removal of the free acid, was but slightly
coloured, it had a slight rotation to the right, and formed a clear
solution with two volumes of 70 per cent. alcohol.
The oil was distilled in October 1900, and the yield obtained at
that time of the year from leaves and branchlets was 0-112 per
cent., 500 tbs. of material giving nine ounces of oil. The leaves
were obtained from the neighbourhood of Wingello. The yield is
only one-third that obtainable from the leaves and terminal
branchlets of Darwinia fascicularis, and may be considered as
about equal in amount to that obtained for geranium oil (Pelar-
gonium sp.). It would, however, be necessary to cultivate Dar-
winia for its oil, but the leaves of HL. macarthuri are ready to
hand. The mode of collection and distillation need not differ in
any respect from that followed with ordinary Eucalyptus oil,
except that it seems wasteful in the extreme to cut down the trees
simply for their leaves, when by topping the trees, fresh material
might again be obtained from the same trees in a few years. As
the actual cost of obtaining crude Eucalyptus oil per pound from
various species is well known, the cost of manufacturing any crude
Eucalyptus oil can be calculated, providing the percentage yield
(on a commercial scale) of any species is known. The method of
preparing the oil of #. macarthuri for market is purely a com-
mercial matter, but the saponification of the total ester in the oil
takes place in the cold when alcoholic potash is used, the delicacy
of the geraniol is thus not impaired in the slightest, as it is
unnecessary to use heat, and the stearoptene, (eudesmol), having
scarcely any odour does not interfere. The separated oil after
cold saponification is light yellowish in colour, its odour is fresh
and aromatic, and when diffused the rose odour is very marked.
The acetic acid present in the ester might also be recovered if
desired.
It is probable that slight differences may be found in the com-
position of the oil at different times of the year, but judging from
the results obtained for Darwinia these differences should not be
EUCALYPTUS OIL CONTAINING GERANYL ACETATE. 145
great. Some free alcohol was found to be present in the oil of
E. macarthuri, most probably geraniol.
The oil separated after saponification is readily oxidised to citral,
using potassium bichromate. The pure aldehyde was obtained by
agitating the oxidised product with sodium bisulphite, separating
the crystals formed, purifying and decomposing them in the usual
way. The tests applied, together with the odour, showed the
product to be citral.
Pure geraniol was obtained by treating the saponified oil with
dry calcium chloride, removing the unacted upon oil with benzene,
allowing the benzene to evaporate, and decomposing the compound:
with water; the washed oil was then steam distilled. The product.
was a colourless oil of a fine rose odour, it boiled at 224 — 225° C..
(uncor.), and had a specific gravity 0:885 at 20° C.
On distilling the oil under atmospheric pressure only a few drops:
came over below 172° C.,! between 172 and 219° C. 10 per cent.
distilled ; between 219 and 229° C., 63 per cent. was obtained ;.
the thermometer then rapidly rose to 266° C., between 266 and
282° C., 16 per cent. came over. Some decomposition of the ester:
had taken place under atmospheric pressure, the odour of acetic-
acid being detected. The first fraction contained neither eucalyptol
nor phellandrene, but a green coloration being obtained with the
sodium nitrite, indicated that a small quantity of pinene was.
present. The second fraction contained most of the geraniol.
The third fraction consisted largely of eudesmol, the oil crystallising ©
toa solid mass in the bottle soon after distilling.
The optical rotation of the crude oil after removal of the free-
acid was + 3°6° ina 100 mm. tube, and the fraction 219 — 229°C.
had a rotation in the same tube of +1:0°. The specific gravity
of the crude oil at 15° C. was 0°9245, this comparatively high
specific gravity was due to the presence of the stearoptene. The-
specific gravity of the fraction 172 - 219° C. was 0°8823; of the-
fraction 219 — 229° C. 0:9111; while that of the fraction 266 —
* Temperatures corrected to the nearest whole degree.
J—Nov. 7, 1900.
146 H. G. SMITH. :
282° C. was 0°9511. The high specific gravity of this portion of
the oil raises the specific gravity of the crude oil above that of
Darwinia fascicularis. The specific gravity of the oil after
saponifying was 0°9115 at 15° C.
Determination of the ester.
The amount of ester present was determined by heating the oil
on the water-bath for one half hour (using upright condenser) with
20 ce. of semi-normal alcoholic potash, and then titrating with
semi-normal sulphuric acid in the usual way.
(1) 2:9725 grammes oil required -5124 gramme potash; saponi-
fication figure =172°38.
(2) 3:0125 orammes oil required -5194 gramme potash; saponi-
fication figure =172°4. |
As the ester consists entirely of geranyl acetate with a molecular
weight of 196, the amount of ester present in the crude oil is
60°34 per cent.
After removing the free acid in the oil an ester determination
gave the following result :—
1:945 grammes oil required 3332 gramme potash; saponification
houne:— lilies,
this gives the saponification figure for the free acid as 1-1, so that
the amount of ester as geranyl acetate in the oil was 59:95 per
cent. and the free acid represented an ester value of 0:39 per cent.
Determination of ester by cold saponification.
The oil taken was that from which the free acid had been
removed by aqueous potash, one anda half hours elapsed after
addition of the alcoholic potash before titration.
1:65 grammes oil required ‘2828 gramme potash; saponification
figure =171°4 ;
this is equal to 59:99 per cent. and it shows that the whole of the
ester present in the oil is saponified in the cold in one and half
hours.
It appears thus certain that the ester present in this oil is
wholly geranyl acetate and that the other esters present in
EUCALYPTUS OIL CONTAINING GERANYL ACETATE. )A7
Eucalyptus oils, determined during the research, are absent, viz.,
the amyl ester of eudesmic acid present in largest amount in the
oil of #. aggregata,; the iso-valeric acid ester present in greatest
amount in the oil of &. salagna, and the acetic acid ester present
in the oil of an Eucalyptus sp. at present undetermined. It ig
thus probable that this method might be used quantitatively for
the determination of geranyl acetate occurring in other essential
oils together with other esters.
Determination of the free alcohol.
The acetylation of the free alcohol in the oil was performed by
gently boiling for one and a half hours with acetic anhydride and
anhydrous sodium acctate, decomposing the remaining anhydride
with water and washing the oil until the water ceased to react acid.
15066 grammes of this oi) required -3164 gramme potash ;
saponification figure = 210
equal to 73:5 per cent. geranyl acetate. As 60°34 per cent.
existed as ester in the original oil we have 13:16 per cent. of ester
formed from the free alcohol present. The free geraniol in the
oil was thus 10°64 per cent.
Determination of the acid of the ester.
The aqueous portion after saponifying the oil was evaporated
to small bulk and distilled with sulphuric acid, adding water until
it ceased to distil acid. The distillate gave the reactions for acetic
acid. A portion of the distillate was exactly neutralised with
barium hydrate, evaporated to dryness, heated to render the salt
anhydrous, and ignited with sulphuric acid. 0°828 gramme gave
0-754 gramme barium sulphate = 91:06 per cent. A second deter-
mination gave identical results. Barium acetate requires 91 37 -
per cent. of barium sulphate, so that but a minute quantity of a
higher volatile acid than acetic acid can be present. An odour
of valeric acid was at first detected and it may be that it had been
derived by oxidation of the trace of valeraldehyde detected when
distilling the oil. It is not likely to be present as free acid,
because the free acid present in Eucalyptus oils is entirely acetic
148 H. G. SMITH.
acid, no other acid being present, at any rate in those oils which
have been exhaustively investigated.
The remainder of the acid distillate was neutralised with soda
and evaporated to crystallising point; very fine crystals of sodium
acetate were thus obtained.
I wish to express my thanks to my colleague, Mr. R. T. Baker
F.L.S., for botanical assistance in preparing this paper.
THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE.
Part I. History AND BIBLIOGRAPHY.
By G. H. Knrpss, F.R.A8.,
Lecturer in Surveying, University of Sydney.
[Read before the Royal Society of N. 8S. Wales, November 7, 1900. ]
ApaArT from its intrinsic interest, the determination of the direc-
tion and quantity of the sun’s motion in space is important, as
being the condition of further progress in developing a satisfactory
system for defining the places of stars. The establishment of such
fixed planes of reference as will be unaffected by the relative or
absolute motions of the sun and stars, even for great periods of
time, is clearly a desideratum, if not essential, in any thorough
scheme of analysis of such movements. It is proposed in this
paper to give an account of the history and bibliography of the
development of this idea, of a motion of translation of the sun
through space, and also of the determinations of its direction and
amount, indicating briefly at the same time the general principles
underlying the determinations. The different references are
numbered for the sake of convenience. This is a step preliminary
to a further consideration of the whole question, and since no such
bibliography has yet been published, nor has any complete review of
THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 149
the existing state of knowledge on the subject been attempted, the
present sketch will not be without value in further prosecuting
the attack on the problem. As to the necessity of reaching the
best solution, difference of opinion cannot, of course, exist.
(1) Giordano Bruno, 1584.—The conception of an indefinitely
extended stellar universe, in which the sun and its planetary
system is but a single and perhaps insignificant member, is one
the world owes to the marvellous intuitions of Giordano Bruno,
the immortality of whose memory was doubly assured when his
noble mind and indomitable spirit vanished from the world in the
flames of martyrdom on the 17th February 1600. ‘The magnifi-
cent stars and resplendent bodies” constituted, according to Bruno,
“innumerable systems of worlds not much unlike our own,” scat-
tered through the ether of a boundless universe,* the suns being
visible, but the planets invisible? through their smallness.
Copernicus had imagined the centre of the universe, as it were,
to be in the sun and immovable.* Bruno to whom the sun was
merely the father of life’ for its own system, placed the centres in
each star,° that is to say, they were centres merely for the systems
of bodies about them; there was no general centre.’ The innumer-
able worlds like ours ‘‘throned and sphered amidst the ether ” free
in space,* having the principle of intrinsic motion, attract one
another and move by their own inward spiritual power.’ It is in
+. .‘* questi magnifici astrie lampeggianti corpi . . che sembrano
e€ sono innumerabili mondi non molto dissimili a questo.”—De la causa,
principio et uno, Vol.1., p. 234, Opere di Giordano Bruno. Wagner,
Leipsic, 1830.
2 «In questo modo diciamo esser un infinito, cioé una eterea regione
immensa, ne la quale sono innumerabili et infiniti corpi come la terra,
la luna et il sole, li quali da noi son chiamati mondi composti di pieno e
vacuo; per che questo spirito, quest’aria, questo etere, non solamente é
circa questi corpi, ma ancora penetra dentro tutti, e viene insito in ogul
cosa.”—De Vinfinito universo e mondi, Vol. 11., p. 34, op. cit. * Ibid., p. 52.
* See op. cit., Vol. 1., p. 163. 5 « Padre di vita.”’ Ibid., p. 51, last line.
° De Immenso. Bk. vit., p. 600. See also De Vinfinito, Vol. I., p. 163.
7 Centum et sexaginta articuliadversus hujus tempestatis mathematicos
ce4x.,Art 160. Prague1588. ®Gfrodrer 14, p. 159.
° See La Cena de le Ceneri.—Opere di Giordano Bruno, Vol. I., pp. 165
—166 etc. Wagner, 1830.
150 G. H. KNIBBS.
the totality of the infinite expanse of the ether that they all move.!
There are also many other passages in Bruno’s writings that
shew most unmistakably the idea of a general motion among the
stars to be at least as old as 1584, when the supposed ‘ Venice’
edition of Bruno’s works appeared.’
(2) Schyrleus de Rheita (Antonius Maria) 1645.—About sixty
years after the publication of Bruno’s works, appeared a curious
treatise by Schyrleus de Rheita, published in Antwerp under the
date 1645, and entitled Oculus Enoch et Hlie etc.” This expresses
with great justice the idea of a general motion among the stars.
‘‘ These,” said Schyrleus, ‘‘ possibly have their proper motion, but
the enormity of their distance prevents its being perceived.”
Doubtless the inspiration of this passage came from his predecessor
Bruno.
(3) Fontenelle, 1686.—In his celebrated discourses on the
plurality of worlds published in 1686, Fontenelle recognised, in a
modified way at least, the possibility of stellar motion, if not also
that of the sun as one of the stars.4. Teaching that the stars were
like our sun,” each being at the centre or in a vortex®—the idea
of Descartes—it was possible for them to have true movement of
their own, and to carry their planets along with them.’ He
recognised also the perpetual motion of the matter of the universe.®
(4) Halley, 1717.—Bruno’s, Schyrleus’ and Fontenelle’s opinions
were of course purely conjectural; the first significant recognition
\
“«Uno dunque é il cielo, il spazio immenso, il seno, il continente
unversale, l’eterea regione, per la quale il tutto discorre e si muove.’”—
Ibid., Vol. 11., p. 50.
? Although Bruno’s work is noted “Stampato in Venezia, Anno
MDLXXXIV.,” it was actually printed in London. Other works supposed
to have been printed in Paris were also printed in London. ;
> Oculus Enoch et Eliz sive radius sidereo-mysticus 2 pt. Antverpiz
1645 fol.
* Entretiens sur la pluralité des mondes, 1686.
> Une étoile fixe est lumineuse d’elle-méme comme le Soleil . . la
centre et ’d4me d’un monde, loc. cit. p. 106, edition 1719, Amsterdam.
6 Soleils des . . tourbillons, ibid. p. 107.
7 @’autres dont le soleil n’etant pas au centre, ait un veritable mouve-
ment, et emporte ses planetes avec soi, ibid., p. 108. 2 ibid., p. 119.
THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 151
of the existence of evidence that the so-called fixed stars did not
really occupy fixed positions, but were subject to movement, is to
be found in Edmund Halley’s ‘“‘Considerations on the change of
the latitudes of some of the principal fixed stars” published in
1717.1. Comparing recent star places with Ptolemy’s, Halley was
astonished to find that the latitudes of Aldebaran, Sirius, and
Arcturus, directly contradicted the greater obliquity of the ecliptic
indicated by the latitudes of most of the rest, and conjecturing
that in all probability these conspicuous stars are nearest to the
earth,” he remarked :—‘“‘if they have any particular motion of
their own, it is most likely to be perceived in them,” that is to
say, in the nearer stars. Since the problem of solar motion, is a
problem of motion in relation to other stars, Halley must be con-
sidered in the passage quoted, to have, implicitly at least, raised
the whole question. ' Its full significance however does not appear
to have occurred to him.
(5) Bradley, 1747.—With Bradley*® the conception took still
more definite shape, for in his paper in the Phil. Trans. of the
Royal Society in 1747, he discussed the consequences, in respect of
star places, of the alternative suppositions, viz., that the stars are
in motion, and the sun fixed; and that the stars are fixed and the
sun is in motion. Bradley clearly recognised that the problem
would, if at all, be solved by taking account of the large proper
motions of the nearer stars, and that a more exact knowledge of
precession, aberration, and nutation, was necessary, before the
problem could be properly attacked. That very knowledge, viz.,
of the fundamental constants of astronomy, was afterwards
attained with a remarkable degree of precision, by the reduction of
Bradley’s own observations and the comparison of them with
Bessel’s observations and with others.
* Phil. Trans. Reprint, Vol. vi., pp. 329-830, Orig. Vol. xxx., 1717.
Halley was then Sec. Roy. Soe. 2p. 330.
* James Bradley, D.p., F.R.s., Astron. Roy.—Phil, Trans. Reprint Vol.
Ix., pp. 417 — 488, Orig. Vol. Lv., 1747-8.
152 G. H. KNIBBS.
(6) Wright, 1750.—In 1750 Thomas Wright of Durham published
“An original theory or new hypothesis of the universe, etc.” in
which the sixth ‘letter’ bears the title ‘of general motion amongst
the stars, etc.” He requires it to be granted that ‘‘all the stars
are, or may be, in motion.” These speculations of Wright’s, on
the nature of the stellar universe, were known to Kant prior to ;
the production of his work on the same subject.”
(7) Kant, 17£5.—It was however not till a period of about five
years after theappearanceof Wright’s theories, that Kant published
anonymously, his remarkable “Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und
Theorie des Himmels,’”’ in which he sketched his view of the
development and mechanics of the entire sidereal system, one
feature of which was the ‘“‘nebular hypothesis” of the genesis of
planetary systems. It was through these offices that the human
mind was familiarized with the larger conception of general stellar
movement.
(8) Mayer, 1760.—Five years later again, that is after the
appearance of Kant’s work, Tobias Mayer, in 1760, in a memoir
presented to a Gottingen Society,* compared the places of 80
stars observed by Roemer in 1706 with his own observations
in 1756 and Lacaille’s in 1750. Out of these, from 15 to 20
shewed differences in declination or right ascension exceeding 15”;
and in the cases of Arcturus, Sirius, Procyon, Altair, Piscis Aus-
trinus, the differences were so great that there could be no question
as to the reality of the stellar motion. Mayer pointed out that
the sun, as well as the stars, might be conceived as having
absolute motion.
(9) Lambert, 1761.—In 1761 Heinrich Lambert’ published some
speculations concerning the universe, surmising that ‘“‘everything
revolves,” the earth round the sun, the sun round the centre of his
* Lond. 4to. pp. xii.+84, plates 32. See also Phil. Mag., April 1848,
pp. 241 - 252.—De Morgan’s account of Wright’s speculations.
? Kant, according to Struve, obtained his knowledge of Wright’s view
from the Hamburgische freie Urtheile of 1751.
3 Leipzic, 8vo 1755. + Opera Inedita, 1775.
* Cosmologische Briefe, Augsburg 1761.
EE
THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 153
system, this group round still another centre, and soon. How-
ever wild such surmises may now appear they were efficient in
stimulating inquiry as to the nature of the evidence of general
stellar movement, and of course cannot even now be proved to be
utterly false.
(10) Michell, 1767.—Six years later, an “inquiry into the
probable parallax and magnitude of the fixed stars, from the
quantity of light which they afford us, and the particular circum-
stances of their situation,” was sent forth by Michell.t In this it
was argued that the apparent change of place might be due to
either solar or stellar motion, or to both combined,” and Michell
observed that if the annual parallax of a few of the stars should
at any time be ascertained, it might serve as a basis for the calcu-
lation of the distances of others. He regarded the sun as merely
one member of a great system of stars.
(11) Lalande, 1776.—Lalande’ in 1776, applied, to the theory
of the sun’s motion, the somewhat fanciful doctrine, that a force,
causing a revolution of a body about its centre, impelled the body
onwards through space. He did not however, contribute anything
of moment to the question.
(12) Prévost, 1781.—The first attempt to definitely calculate
the direction of the solar motion was, I believe, made in Germany
by Prévost, and published in the Nouveaux Mémoires of the Berlin
Academy for 1781.* Prévost’s investigation, based upon the
proper motions in Tobias Mayer’s table, led him to an opposite
conclusion to that drawn by Mayer himself; for he, Prévost, was
satisfied, contrary to Mayer’s view, that the table afforded distinct
indication of motion, and selecting 26 stars for discussion ; he fixed
the coordinates of the point towards which the sun must, from
their apparent motions, be supposed to really move, as
R.A. = 230°, D. = + 25°
1 Rev. John Michell, B.D., F.R.s.—-Phil. Trans, Reprint Vol. x11., pp.
423 — 440, 1767. 2 p. 433.
> Mem. l’Acad. Sc., Paris 1776.
+p. 418. See also Berl. Astr. Jahrb. 1786, 259.
154 G. H. KNIBBS.
a result nearly agreeing with the deduction of Herschel two years
afterwards.’ Prévost raised the question as to whether, assuming
comets to enter our system from without, more ought not to appear
from the advancing than from the opposite quarter.
(13) Herschel, 1783.—In 1783 Herschel’s paper ‘“‘On the proper
motion of the sun and solar system etc.,” appeared in the
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.? Using Dr.
Maskelyne’s account of the proper motions of a number of stars,
he formed two tables, one containing 32 stars; the other 12. He
concluded that the solar motion cannot be less than that which
the earth has in her annual] orbit, and assigned a point near X
Herculis, with the codrdinates, according to Galloway, Ger 1°
R.Av= 2977, Wr 2s
as the positive direction of the motion at that date. In the post-
script to his paper he says, that out of 44 stars, the apparent
movement of which were examined, 32 agree with the hypothesis,
and the remaining 12 cannot be accounted for by it. This ‘must
therefore be ascribed to a real motion of the stars themselves, or
to some more hidden cause of a still remoter parallax.” Herschel’s
method of solution depended upon the direction of the proper
motion of the stars, the intersections of which on the celestial
+The Encyclopedia Britannica 9° Edit. x1., p. 767, the article being
by Prof. Pritchard, by implication rather than specific statement credits
Herschel with being the author of the idea of solar motion. Although
he, Herschel, made no acknowledgments, Prévost’s work was probably
widely known. Proctor also fails to recognise Prévost’s result. see Encyc.
Brit. 11., p. 819. It may be mentioned that Galloway writing on 4th
March, 1847 says, (Phil. Trans. Reprint, Vol. Lxv., p. 83): :—‘* In the saine
year (i. e., 1783) in which Sir W. Herschel’s paper appeared i in the Trans-
actions, Prévost communicated the results of a similar inquiry to the
Berlin Academy ina memoir which was published in the Nouveaux
Mémoires of that Society for 1781.” It may be further remarked that in
1894 in the Abh. d. k. Leop.-Carol. Akad., Bd. 64, p. 215, Kobold says,
«William Herschel im Jahre 1783 zuerst das Vorhandensein einer fort-
schreitenden Bewegung unseres Sonnensystems darlegte und die Richtung
dieser Bewegung bestimmte . . .’’ . That is to say Kobold has failed
to notice Prévost’s claim to priority.
? William Herschel—Phil. Trans. Reprint, Vol. xv., pp. 397 - 409. The
remainder of the title is:—‘‘ With an account of several changes that
have happened among the fixed stars since the time of Mr. Flamsteed.
See also Ber]. Astr, Jahrb. 1787, p. 224.
THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 155.
sphere are of course considered as the points to and from which
the sun is moving.
(14) Du Séour, 17S6.—It is stated in the Connaissance des.
Temps for 1809,’ that Duséjour occupied himself with the problem
of solar motion. This would probably be found in his analytical
treatise of the movements of celestial bodies.”
(15) Kliigel, 1789.—The Berlin ephemeris in 1789 contained
formule by Kliigel,® for deducing the direction of the sun’s path
in space, the point which he assigned having for its codrdinates
the values
LS PAO) ADS mee 7
The deduction was also based on the proper motions of Mayer’s
table.
(16) Wurm, 1795.—The Berlin Astronomical Yearbook was in
1795 again the repository of a discussion of the trend of our
system in the stellar universe; viz.,in Wurm’s article on the
degree of certainty of our knowledge of the movement of our
system through space.*
(17) Prévost P. and Maurice, F., 1801.—In the memoirs of the
Berlin Academy in 1801, adetermination by Prévost and Maurice,”
based on a discussion of the proper motion from 1756 to 1797 of
39 stars, of the point to which the motion of our system is directed,
was given. The result was also published afterwards in the
Berlin Ephemeris, viz., in 1805.°
(18) Biot, 1805.—Jean Baptiste Biot in his Traité élémentaire
d’astronomie physique,’ published in 1805, also deduced formule
1 Sur le mouvement du systéme planétaire, pp. 377 — 382.
2 Traité analytique des mouvemens apparens des corps célestes, Paris
1786-9, 2 tomes 4°,
3 Trigonometrische Formeln zu der Untersuchung iiber die Fortriick-
ung der Sonne und der Sterne.—Berl. Astr. Jahrb. 1789, 214.
* Ueber den Grad der Zuverlissigkeit unserer Kenntniss von einer
eigenen Bewegung unserer Sonnensystems.—Berl. Astr. Jahr 1795, p. 175.
5 Mém. Berlin Acad. 1801, pp. 118 — 131.
6 Bode, Berl. Astr. Jahrb,, 1805, pp. 113 - 126.
7The edition to which I have access is 1811. The treatment of the
problem is entitled ‘“‘Sur le mouvement de translation dn systéme
’ planétaire,” t. 111., additions pp. 114-129.
156 G. H. KNIBBS.
for the computation of the codrdinates of the direction of the sun’s
path. He computed the intersections of great circles determined
by the proper motions of Aldebaran, Capella, Sirius, Procyon,
"Pollux, Arcturus, a Lyre, and a Aquile, as given by Zach’ from
comparisons of Bradley’s places with Maskelyne’s, and of Mayer’s
with Piazzi’s. Biot’s system of axes was identical with Airy’s
hereinafter mentioned. His theoretical expression for the “secular
” analogous to that for parallax in altitude, contained
parallax,
the factor,—the solar motion divided by the distance of the star.
The absolute values of these he said, were impossible of determin-
ation. Selecting Sirius, Procyon, and Arcturus as stars whose
proper motions were most suitable for a determination, he found
the point towards which our system tends, to have the following
coordinates, viz.
R.A. = 249°0, D.= +36°4
Biot shewed that the evidence indicated displacements among the
stars themselves: 7.e., the changes of apparent place could not be
wholly due to the sun’s motion.
(19) Herschel, LSO5.—In May of the same year (1805), William
Herschel? returned to the problem, Dr. Maskelyne’s proper
motions of 36 stars, the table of which he published in 1790,
affording the necessary material for a more elaborate computation
than he had at first undertaken. Herschel stated that the possi-
bility of solar motion had been shewn upon theoretical principles
by Dr. Wilson of Glasgow, and the probability, by Lalande, to
which latter reference has already been made. He assigned for
the point of direction, the position
R.A. = 245°9, D.= +49°°6
this being based upon the proper motions of 6 stars only, and so
determined that the sum of the true proper motions should be a
minimum. He discussed also the quantity of the motion.
(20) Herschel, 1806.—On February of the year following, (viz.,
1806) Herschel read a further paper ‘‘on the quantity and velocity
* Tabule speciales aberrationis et nutationis, etc.
* Phil. Trans. Reprint Vol. xx111., pp. 233 — 256, 1805. Also Berl. Astys
Jabrb., 1811, p. 224.
THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 157
of the solar motion.” He gave—p. 233—its value calculated for
the distance of Sirius as 1°"117, and remarked on the possibility
of the sun forming a unit in a very extensive stellar system. He
also pointed out that it could not possibly be one member of a
binary combination, as for example, with Arcturus. It may be
mentioned further, that he assigned the following values for the
relative distances of Sirius, Arcturus, Oapella, a Lyre, Aldebaran
and Procyon, viz., 1, 1:2, 1°25, 1:3, 1-4 and 1-4.
(21) Prévost, 1SO8.—In 1808 a further attempt of Prévost’s to
deduce the solar motion appeared in the Bibliotheque brittanique.?
(22) Burkhardt, 18S09.—Herschel’s scheme for deducing the
solar motion in space was objected to by Burkhardt in a memoir
published in the Connaissance des Temps of 1809. Burkhardt
gave formule for the solution of this problem, and applied these
to several of the stars in Maskelyne’s catalogue. The discrepancy
among the results led him to conclude that we were not in pos-
session of sufficient information to justify any deduction. His
contention that the Herschelian method of solution, based on the
assumption that the sum of the true proper motions of the stars
must be a minimum, was equivalent to supposing that the stars
are inclined to rest rather than to motion, shews a singular mis-
apprehension of the nature of the problem.
(224) Gauss, 1810 ?—According to Ludwig Struve,’? Gauss
assigned the values
ea 200° 2, Di 30" S
for the direction of the solar motion. No reference is given so
that the date is uncertain.
(23) Bessel, 1518.—In 1818 it was again, this time more
elaborately, investigated by Bessel in the 12th section of the
Fundamenta astronomic. After discussing the proper motions of
71 stars, each being not less than 0°’5 annually, and finding that
1 Phil. Trans. Reprint Vol. xxiv., pp. 205 — 237.
?t, XXXIX., pp. 192-210, 1808.
? Mem. Acad. St. Petersb., 7me série, t. KxXv., (3).
158 G. H. KNIBBS.
this number gave no certain result, Bessel concluded that a con-
siderable period must elapse before the true theory of solar motion
can be made out. The Besselian method depended upon the
principle that the poles of the proper motions give a reliable
indication of the sun’s path in reference to the stars considered.
(24) Olbers, 1821.—In 1821 Olbers calculated the direction of
the path in space of our system from the proper motion of 82
stars. This was published in connection with his correspondence
with Bessel.
(25) Argelander, 1857.—Argelander’s great memoir “On the
proper motion of the solar system,” presented to the Academy of
St. Petersburg in 1837° may be said to be the first systematic
attempt to discuss the problem with anything like the thoroughness
it deserved ; 390 stars with proper motions sufficiently large were
available, by comparing Bessel’s reductions of Bradley’s observa-
tions with Argelander’s own ‘1830’ catalogue.’ These stars were
divided into classes as follows, and with the following results for
the year 1792-5 :—
Classi: EM 21 Stars R.A. 260°8 D.+31°3
» UW 4 -lL’O—0°"5. 50: ,,. |, ., , 200° 25 mee
5 lt Gy O10 107097 Solos. » 2012" \ ees
The general result corrected to the beginning of this century
eo es R.A. =259°9, D.= +32°5°
Argelander’s fundamental assumption was that the distances
of the stars varied inversely as their proper motions. His reduc-
1 Point vers lequel se dirige le systéme solaire, d’aprés les mouvements
propres de 82 étoiles. Olbers u. Bessel.—Briefwechsel, herausg. von A.
Erman 11., 1852, p. 220.
* Ueber die eigene Bewegung des Sonnensystems.—Mém. d. sav. étr.
de l’acad. impér. St. Petersb., t. 111.. pp. 561 — 605.
3 DLX Stellarnm fixarum positiones medie, ineunte anno 1830. Ex
observationbus Aboz habitis deduxit—Kelsingforsie, 1835.
+ P.M. denotes as usual, proper motion.
5 The values given for the second calculation and final result are in the
St. Petersburg Memoirs— 1. 255°°9; 37°°8
11. 258°2; 89 2 1792°5
Ill. 262°0; 29°2
For mean, 1800 —260°°8; 31°°3.—Vide pp. 589 - 590. Argelander corrects
these in the memoir published i in the Astron. Nach.: the (One values
are those above given.
THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE, 159
tion was as follows :—The angles Y made by the P.M’s. with
circles of declination were first computed, and then, assuming a
point @ for the direction of the solar motion, the angles &’ which
the stars’s path made with the meridians thereof, were also calcu-
lated. The value of ’ was differentiated on the supposition that
the R.A. and D. of Q are variables. In the resulting expression
the value of the differences of Y and W’ were substituted for dy’,
and thus an equation was obtained in which there are two undeter-
mined quantities dA say, and dD. These equations on being
solved by the method of least squares, gave values to be applied
as corrections to the assumed values of the R.A. and D, of @. The
successive application of this process with recomputed values of
R.A., D. and ’ gave that position of Q which most nearly repre-
sented the whole of the observations.
(26) Struve, I. G. W. von, 1837.,—A report by Struve on
Argelander’s work appeared in the Bulletin of the St. Petersburg
Academy of Science in 1837,’ and some correspondence between
him and H. C. Schumacher, the founder of the Astronomische
Nachrichten, also took place, in the same year,’ relative to the
solar motion.
(27) Wartmann, L. F., 1837.’—In the same year also, an article
was contributed by Wartmann to the Society of Switzerland, on
the general motion of translation of our whole system in space.
(28) Taylor, T. G., 1838.-—The Madras Literary and Scientific
Journal for 1838 contained a reference to the solar motion in
space by Taylor of the Observatory of that place.
* Rapport sur le mémoire de EF’. Argelander : Ueber die eigene Bewegung
des Sonnensystems hergeleitet aus den eigenen Bewegungen der Sterne.
Petersb. Bull. Scient. Acad. 11., 1837, pp. 1138, 129.
? Auszug aus einem Schreiben an H. C. Schumacher, Astr. Nach. xiv,
1837, 315; Bibliothéque universelle de Genéve (2) x., 1837, 161.
3 Sur le mouvement général de translation de tout ’ensemble de notre
systéme solaire.—Soc. Helvét. Act., 1837, pp. 71-74.
* Result of astronomical observations made at the Madras Observatory:
Motion of the Solar system in space.—Madras Journ. Lit. and Sci., (1)
vil., 1838, pp. 387 — 399, 479.
160 ; G. H. KNIBBS.
(29) Cauchy, 1889..—In 1839 Cauchy cursorily remarked in
connection witha brief discussion on the effect of motion on the
behaviour of luminous rays, that “if our sun move in space it
translates with it the whole planetary system”; and he points out
that on the supposition that the system to some extent carries
the ether with it, there is nothing extraordinary in the fact that
the refractions of luminous rays from stars in opposite points of |
the heavens, viz., the points from which and to which we are
moving, are equal. This is probably one of the earliest recognitions
that the solar motion in space may perhaps produce optical effects
of an important character : a question however which has recently
been exhaustively discussed. See for example ‘‘Aether and |
Matter,” by Larmor, Cambridge University Press, 1900.
(30) Grurthuisen, 1840.,—In 1840 Gruithuisen, in a memcir in
the Astronomisches Jahrbuch for that year, pointed out that
meteors afford evidence of the path of the sun in space,
(31) Lundahl, 1840.—The Abo catalogue, by Argelander, did
not contain the whole of Bradley’s stars given in the Fundamenta
Astronomix. On comparing the latter work with Pond’s cata-
logue of 1,112 stars reduced at the beginning of 1830, Lundahl
found as many as 147 stars with P. Ms. not less than 0°09 annually,
which had not been included in Argelander’s investigation. The
reduction of these gave the result
R.A. =252°4, D.= +14°4
for the epoch 1792°5. Combining this result with those previously
obtained by Argelander, and having regard to the weight of each,
gave for 1800
ReAs = 201-79 DS eas
This investigation was published by Argelander in the Astrono-
mische Nachrichten.?
' Note sur Pégalité des refractions de deux rayons lumineux qui émanent.
de deux étoiles situées dans deux portions opposées de Pécliptique. —
Comptes rendus, vitr., 1839, pp. 327 — 329.
2 Die Sternschnuppen zeigen, wohin die Sonne den Weg im Weltraum
nimmt.—Astr. Jahrb. 1840, 1 (Gruithuisen).
3 Astr. Nach., No. 398, pp. 209 - 216.
THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 161
(32) Wolfers, 1541.—W olfers contribution on the proper motion
of our system appeared in the monthly notices of the Geographical
Society of Germany for 1841."
(33) Richter, Hd., 1842.°—In the following year the proceedings
of the Dessau Natural History Society contained Richter’s paper
upon the same subject, and on the velocity of the motion.
(34) Struve, O., 1842.—The determination of the solar motion
was next undertaken in 1841 by Otto von Struve, his researches
being published in 1842 at St. Petersburg. It was pased upon
the proper motion of 392 stars, whose mean places according to
Bessel’s catalogue were compared with their positions in 1825
deduced from observations made at the Dorpat Observatory. Of
these only about 134 had been iucluded in Argelander’s series ;
about 260 were new. Struve’s fundamental hypothesis was that
the distances of the stars were in the inverse order of their
magnitudes; and dividing stars from the first to the seventh
magnitude into twelve classes, he assigned unity as the distance
of the first and 11:34 as that of the twelfth class, following the
indication of the elder Struve* in the introduction to his catalogue
of double stars.” Otto Struve’s result reduced to 1792°5 was
R.A. = 261°4, D,= +37°°6
and combining these values with the three determinations by
Argelander and one by Lundahl, he obtained for the same epoch,
R.A. = 259°2, D.= +34°°6.
(35) Bravats, 1843.°—In 1843 Bravais communicated to the
French Academy of Sciences, two notes on the solar-motion deter-
1 Ueber die eigene Bewegung unseres Sonnensystems.—Monatsber.
Gesell. Erdkunde 11., 1841, pp. 37, 38.
2 Ueber die eigene Bewegung der Sonne und deren Geschwindigkeit.—
Dessau Verhandl. des Naturh. Vereins 1., 1842, pp. 14-17.
*Mém. 1’Académie, t. v., 1842, pp. 17-124.—Bestimmung der Con-
stanten der Precession, mit Beriicksichtigung der eigenen Bewegung des
Sonnensystems. See also Astr. Nach., Bd. xx1., 1844, pp. 65 - 74.
* Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve—Recueil Pétersb. Acad., 1832.
Introd. in Cat. nov. Stell dup.
> See Dunkin, 1863, hereinafter.
6 Memoire sur le mouvement propre du systéme solaire dans l’espace.
—Journ. de Math. pur et appliq., t. vi1., 1843, p. 435. Comptes rendus,
t. XvI., 1843,pp. 494-498; t. xvi1., 1843, pp. 888 — 889.
K—WNov. 7, 1900
162 G. H. KNIBBS.
mined upon the assumption that the 71 fundamental stars, whose
proper motions were discussed, belonged to the one dynamic system,
whose centre of inertia was supposed to be at rest. Bravais
recognised the great disadvantage of insufficient information as to
proper motions of stars in the southern hemisphere, and discussed
the effect of taking into account the distances of the stars and .
their distribution in the celestial sphere.
In the second note he found that, basing fresh calculations on
the proper motions of 62 stars of the first and second magnitudes
in the 1755 and 1830 catalogues, the sun’s trajectory was directed
to a point nearly coincident with y Herculis, and that its path
annually was 0°"28 at the mean distance of stars of the first
magnitude. The position of 7 Herculis for 1843 would give
R.A. = 249°4, D.=+39°2 R.=0-728
as the codrdinates of the direction of the sun’s motion at that
date: R denotes mean distance of stars of first magnitude.
(36) Bolzano, 1843.'—Doppler had conceived and published the
idea that when a source of light, as a star, has a velocity as high
as thirty-three miles a second, to or from the observer, a sensible
consequent variation should exist, as he believed, in its colour.?
Bolzano imagined that the changes of the light of the stars, taking
place through such movement, could be made to afford some
indication of its velocity, the distances between the stars and so
on. It will be necessary to refer to this matter later ; when the
nature of Doppler’s misconception will be further adverted to.
(37) Otto Struve and Peters, 1844?—Faye in 1859 quotes
Struve and Peters as having assigned the codrdinates
R.A. = 259°75, D.= +34°55
as specifying the direction of the path of our system in space for
the epoch 1859.°
1 Hine Paar Bemerkungen tiber die neue Theorie in Herrn Doppler’s
Schrift “ Ueber das farbige Licht der Doppelsterne.”—Pogg. Annal.,
Bd. Lx., 1843, pp. 83 — 88.
2 Abhandl. der k. béhm. Gesell., Fol. v., Bd. 11., 1841-2, pp. 465 — 482.
3 Comptes rendus, 5 Dec. 1859, p. 873.
THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 163
(38) Madler, 1846.—In 1839 Madler succeeded Friedrich
Struve at Dorpat ; the latter having been assigned the directorship
of the Pulkova Observatory, then the best organized observatory
in the world, and in 1840 he discussed the present state of our
knowledge of the System of the Universe,’ following on in 1846
with his own theory of the position of the ‘central sun,”” about
which our sun and its neighbours were supposed to revolve. The
idea was by no means a new one. Long before the architecture
of the stars had been systematically studied, Kant, to whose work
reference has already been made, had speculated on the possibility
of Sirius being the centre of revolution. Lambert, was inclined
to regard the vast nebula in Orion as the controlling centre:
Herschel the great cluster in Hercules, estimated by him to con-
tain 14,000 stars:? Argelander selected a point, R.A. = 49°
D. = + 544°, in Perseus :* Boguslawski gave preference to Fomal-
haut in Piscis Australis. Madler’s idea was that the sidereal
system revolved about its common centre of inertia, and from the
direction and quantity of rotation he concluded that Alcyone
{n Tauri) was, in a passive sense, this centre. The distance thereto
he computed to be thirty-four million times the radius of the
earth’s mean distance from the sun, and the great revolution to
be made in 18-2 million years, with a velocity of thirty miles per
second. Later Madler published’? a more complete exposition,
which will be more fully referred to hereinafter.
(39) Mitchell, 1847.—In 1847 an article by Mitchell appeared
on the proper motion of the solar system® in the Sidereal Messenger.
1 Ueber den gegenwartigen standpunkt unseres Kenntniss der Welt-
systeme.—Oken, Isis, 1840, pp. 823 — 835.
2 Die Central Sonne—Astr. Nach. 566, 567, pp. 218-237. Bibl. Univ.
Archives 111.. 1846, pp.5 - 29. Seealso, Uebersicht der neuesten Erweiter-
ungen und des gegenwiartigen Standes unserer Kenntniss des Sonnen-
systems.—Miinchen, Gelehrte Anz. xx11., 1846, pp. 755 — 792.
3 Phil. Trans. Reprint Vol. xxtv., p. 230, 1806.
*Mem. St. Pétersb. Acad. t. 111., p. 608, 1837.
5 Die Higenbewegungen der Fixsterne in ihren Beziehungen zum
Gesammtsystem, Dorpat, 1856.
ie, 1947, p. 70.
164 G. H. KNIBBS.
(40) Galloway, 1847.—On the year following the appearance
of Midler’s memoir on a “ Central Sun,” Thomas Galloway,' secre-
tary of the Royal Astronomical Society, studied the solar-motion
problem with new material. He selected 81 stars in the southern
hemisphere, observed by Johnson and Henderson, comparing their
places with the catalogues of Lacaille and Bradley. These stars
had a P.M. of at least 0°’1 per annum, 65 depending on Lacaille
and 16 on Bradley’s results. In respect of the principle of com-
puting the solar motion, Galloway argued that each equation
should have equal weight since we know nothing of the absolute
velocity of a star’s motion, or of its distance. His final deduc-
tions, based on the assumption indicated, were :—
81 stars, general result :— R.A.=263°8 D.= +37°3
79 stars, re-calculated with two
stars rejected .. Ay gas 257° ae 34°°3
78 stars, re- ealenlared sith a anvils
rejection of one star ... eae cits 260: 09tae 34°°4
The coordinates are for the epoch 1790.
Galloway considered the possible error of the catalogues, and
shewed that the annual P.M. 0-1, was greater than the probable
error of the catalogue. The close accord with the results of
Argelander and Struve he regarded as considerably enhancing the
probability of the conclusions reached.
(41) Encke, 1847.?—In an article on von Struve’s study of
stellar astronomy, Encke discussed Gauss’ representations respect-
ing the uncertainty of our knowledge of the direction of the sun’s
movement.? Struve had, according to Encke, assigned a point in
the line joining the two third-magnitude stars 7 and p Herculis,
one-fourth of the whole distance from the former—that is a point
whose codrdinates in 1847 would be
R.A. = 259°°3, D.= +34°7
This is obviously the result previously given, see (34).
1 On the proper motion of the Solar System by Thomas Galloway,
M.A., F.R.S.—Phil. Trans. Reprint Vol. txv., pp. 79—109, March, 1847.
2 Ueber die ‘‘ etudes d’astronomie stellaire ’’ von Struve.—Astr. Nach.
XXvVI., 1848, pp. 337 — 350.
3 Gauss, Darstellung hinsichtlich der Ungewissheit in der Bestimmung
der Richtung der Sonnenbewegung.—Loc. cit., p. 348.
THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 165
(42) Fleury, 1852.'—In 1852, Fleury indicated what he believed
to be a suitable experimental method for determining the amount
of motion of the solar system.
(43) Plana, 1852.°—Plana, discussing in the Astronomische
Nachrichten of 1852, Galloway’s results, gave as the result from
81 stars, computed by stricter methods,
RAS = 260592, Ds — F309
Epoch 1790. In his solution he applied the method of least squares
and discussed Galloway’s solution at same length.
(44) Struve, Ff. G. W., von, 1853.°—The first volume of the
collection of Memoirs (1852 or 1853) of the Pulkova Observatory
contains one by Friedrich Struve on ‘Results relating to the
proper motion of the Solar System.”
(45) Arago, 1855.*— Arago, in his popular astronomy, refers at
some length to the work done by different astronomers, on the
computation of the sun’s path in space ; he however contributes
nothing original, and as a bibliography his chapter is incomplete.
(46) Mddler, 1856.°—In 1856 Madler made a second and
much more thorough determination based on the proper motions
of no less than 2,163 stars. This gave—
13 ey HONS IDR SS ao,
for the direction of the sun’s motion, a direction which it has
since been shewn is probably the prevailing one for several stars
near our system.°
(47) Airy, 1859.—In March 1859, Airy also investigated the
question under discussion.’ Pointing out what he conceived to be
+ Méthode expérimentale propre 4 déterminer le mouvement absolu de
Soleil.—Cherbourg, Mém. Soe. Sci. 1., 1852, pp. 336.
? Mémoire sur Ja direction probable que Mr. T. Galloway assigne au
mouvement propre du systéme solaire, etc.—Astr. Nachr. xxxiv., 1852,
pp. 301 - 326.
* Résultats relatifs . . au mouvement propre du systéme solaire.—
Poulkova, Recueil de Mém. 1., 1852 or 1858.
* Mouvements propres des étoiles et translation du systéme solaire.—
Astronomie populaire 11., 1855, p. 19.
* Détermination de la direction suivant la quelle se meut le systéme
solaire.—Dorpat, Beob. x1v., 1856, p. 223.
6 See Klinkerfues, 1878, hereinafter.
“On the movement of the Solar system in Space.—Monthly Notices,
Roy. Astr. Soc., Vol. x1x., pp. 175-180, 1859. See also Memoirs, Vol
XXVIII., pp. 143 — 172, 1860.
166 G. H. KNIBBS.
the impracticability of Herschel’s graphic method when the
number of proper motions to be considered was large, and the
impropriety of assuming the point to be determined, he proposed
a method of rectangular codrdinates, with a general weight
multiplier to be attached to any class of stars defined by brilliancy
or any characteristic, other than the magnitude of the proper
motion itself. His system of axes, identical with Biot’s, was—a,
the sun’s centre at a fixed epoch (an equinox); y, the point whose
R.A. was 90°, the xy plane being parallel to the earth’s equator ;
z was parallel to the earth’s axis and + tothe north. The proper
motions reduced on this system were treated as chance quantities
by the theory of errors. Airy clearly saw that the probable
_ inequalities of motion, in the stars forming the cluster to which
we may be supposed to belong, limited in some measure the strict-
ness of this method, and he directed the attention of future
investigators to the point. He also considered the influence of
the systematic error, which may have crept into the computations
by which the proper motions themselves were determined. Those
used in his discussion, were taken from Main’s papers in the
Monthly Notices and the Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical
Society, giving altogether the proper motions of about 1,200 stars,
from comparisons of Bradley’s places computed by Bessel, with
the places given in the Greenwich 12-year, and subsequent 6-year
catalogues.’ In the analysis, two extreme suppositions were con-
sidered : (a) that the irregularities of proper motion were entirely
due to chance errors of observation: (6) that they were due to the
motions peculiar to the stars themselves, the latter supposition
being regarded as in the main the true one. Airy was guided by
F.. von Struve as to assumptions respecting the supposed relation
between the magnitude and distance of the stars. It is worthy
of special remark that he, Airy, seems to have been the first to
clearly recognise what may be called the relativity of the problem.
1 Rev. Rk. Main—Proper Motions of 875 stars, etc. Monthly Notices,
Vol, x., pp. 118, 122, (1850). Proper motions, Greenwich 12-year cata-
logue, etc. Memoirs, Vol. xtx., (1851). Proper motions, Greenwich
catalogue of 1,576 stars, etc. Memoirs, Vol. xxvit., pp. 127 - 142, 1858,
published 1860.
THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 167
He points out that we may arbitrarily take as the zero of our
space codrdinates, the place of one body or the mean of the places.
of many bodies ; and in computing the sun’s motion we are really
referring that motion to the mean place of the stars included in
the investigation, considered as a fixed point, or more strictly as a
point of reference. Denoting by R the sun’s proper motion as.
seen from the distance of a star of the first magnitude, Airy found
the elements of the solar motion for suppositions (a) and (0) to
be as follows, for the epoch 1840 (?):—
(a) Rex — 25679, D.= +395, Rho 17269
(b) 261°°5, +24°7, 3). 7:
Struve had, in his ‘Bestimmung der Constante der Preecession,”
found only 0°-”339 for the quantity of the solar motion, just about
one sixth of Airy’s estimate. This will serve to indicate the
uncertainty as to the velocity of translation through space, deduced
in this way.
(48) Carrick, 1859.'—Carrick’s paper on the sun’s orbit plane,
in the proceedings of the Literary and Philosophical Society of
Manchester, discussed, I believe, the solar motion. [As there is
no available copy in Sydney I cannot verify this however].
(49) Faye, 1859.’—In discussing the effect of the motion of the
solar system through space, upon Fizeau’s then recent attempt to
determine whether the azimuth of the polarisation of a refracted
ray is affected by the movement of the refracting body,’ Faye
quoted the value assigned by Otto Struve and Peters for the year
1859, as being
R.A. =259°7, D.= +34°5, V.=7-9 kilometres per second.
(50) Liagre, 1859.A—Liagre’s memoir to the Brussels’ Royal
Academy of Sciences in 1859, furnished references to the results
obtained by different investigators and discussed the significance
1 Proc. Lit. Phil. Soc., Manchester, Vol. 1., p. 187, 1860.
* Sur les experiences de M. Fizeau, considerées au point de vue du
mouvement de translation du systéme solaire.—Comptes rendus XLIx.,
1859, pp. 870-875. °Ibid., pp. 717 — 723.
* Sur les mouvements propres des étoiles et du soleil_—Brux. Bull.
Acad. viit., 1859, 158.
168 G. H. KNIBBS.
of the question, but he contributed nothing fundamental to the
then existing material. His memoir gives however a fair idea of
the state of knowledge of the question in his day, but is meagre
from a bibliographical or historical point of view. |
(51) Gautier, A., 1859.\—Gautier contributed in the same year
a notice on the later researches of Midler.
(52) Peters, 1860.—In 1860 Peters again discussed the nature
of the proper motion of the fixed stars, with reference to the
hypothesis of Midler, that the stellar system revolved round
Alcyone as a central sun.’
(53) Babinet, 1862.—In a paper on the influence of the motion
of the earth on optical phenomena,’ in October 1862, Babinet
quotes the codrdinates of the direction of our motion in space as
R.A.= 2607, Do— —-3£ 0, Vi—O:201=
S being the annual orbit of the earth. These are evidently
Struve’s results for the direction.
(54) Carrington, 1863.—Carrington discussing very briefly the
consequence of motion of translation of our whole system through ©
space, concludes that any attempt to deduce the direction of
motion from the apparitions of non-periodic comets is nugatory.*
(55) Angstrim, 1868,— Angstrom in 1861 suggested to the
Royal Scientific Society of Upsala a purely optical method of
determining the motion of translation of the solar system, which
was practically identical with Babinet’s, previously briefly referred
to. In 1863, he published results of an attempt to thus deduce
proof of the motion, experiments shewing that the influence of
1 Notice sur les derniéres recherches de M. Madler relatives au mouve-
ment général des étoiles autour d’un point central.—Archiv. d. Sci. phys.
et nat. Iv., 1859, p. 305.
* Ueber die Higenbewegungen die Fixsterne, mit Bezug auf Herrn
Miadler’s Hypothese der Bewegung der Sterne um Alcyone als Central-
sonne.— Peters, Zeitschrift 1., 1860, pp. 88 — 130.
* Comptes rendus, t. Lv., 1862, pp. 561 - 564.
* Monthly Notices, Roy. Astr. Soc., Vol. xxx111., pp. 203-204.
THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 169
the earth’s annual motion appears to be verified, but the evidence
of solar motion was doubtful.’
(56) Dunkin, 1863.—In 1863 Dunkin computed the solar
motion from the proper motions of 1,167 stars.” These he
arranged in seven groups according to Struve’s magnitude-parallax
theory, the distribution in right ascension being nearly uniform,
and about two-thirds of the stars being in the northern hemisphere.
The assumed relative distances, and the number of stars corres-
ponding to each were : |
Distance EOF 2 Oh Peo On Oe eS 0) Wea
perocsors: Dist. 1:0 47 3:2 41 20 - 4d 5:0
No. of Stars god) 146579238330) 368 21
The results on Airy’s two suppositions were—
(Gee ee 20 2 Di 2d) RR, —0'7300
(0) 263°7 25°°0 0-410
Dunkin remarked that probably a few stars of the fourth, fifth,
and sixth magnitudes with large proper motions, are after all near
stars, and notwithstanding that his values for the quantity of
solar motion were sensibly the same as Struve’s, 0°”339, he
regards the fundamental assumptions as resting upon a very
slender basis.
(57) Stone, 1863.—On 11th December, 1863, E. J. Stone, con-
tributed a discussion merely on the quantity of the solar motion.
Accepting R.A. = 260° N.P.D.=55°°37' as the direction thereof,
he found, rejecting stars within 10° of the pole, from the proper
motions in R.A. 0°"434, and from those in N.P.D. 0°°341. The
mean 0°’403 would represent the motion at the mean distance of
the group of stars considered. Stone alleges that if Bradley’s
* Ny bestamning af ljusets vaglingder jemte en method att pa optisk
vag bestimma solsystemets progressiva rérelse.—Oefv. Vetensk. Akad.
Forhandl., Stockholm, Bd. xx., p. 41, 1868. Seealso Pogg. Annal., cxvit.,
p. 290, and Phil. Mag. Vol. xxrx., 4 Ser., 1865, pp. 489 — 501.
? Monthly Notices.—Roy. Astr. Soc., Vol. xx111., pp. 166 —169.
3 See hereinafter.
* On the motion of the solar system in space.— Month. Not. Roy, Astr.
Soc., Vol. xxiv., pp. 36 - 39, 1864.
170 G. H. KNIBBS.
R.A. required a correction in the form of x cos R.A.+ysin R.A.
the apparent drift would be at once accounted for.
(58) Reddie, 1864.—The Astronomical Register of 1864 con-
tained an article by Reddie, expressing disbelief as to the motion
of the solar system in space. The paper provoked some anonymous
discussion in the pages of that journal,’ but neither the paper nor
discussions contribute anything of permanent interest.
(59) Babinet, 1864.—Babinet, in an article in Cosmos in 1864,
discussed the possibility of the solar motion being that of one
component of a double star.’
(60) Stone, 1867,—In 1867 Stone considered the question of
the probability of the existence of solar motion, from the number
of cases of mere agreement or disagreement of the signs of the
proper motion and parallactic displacement.* His conclusion
was that the preponderance over the number required by mere
proper motion was sufficient evidence of the reality of the displace-
ment, but that on the whole the parallactic displacement due to
the motion of our system through space was much smaller than
the independent proper motion of the stars.
(61) Hoek, 1868.—Iu reply to a query of Delaunay’s as to
whether there was evidence of solar motion in the inclinations,
with the plane of the earth’s orbit about the sun, of the planes of
the non-periodic comets, and also in their excentricities, Hoek
stated in 1868 that, subject to some uncertainty, the proper motion
of the sun would from such evidence appear to be insignificant as
compared with the mean initial motion of the comets, and from a
study of the excentricities it might be deduced, that the annual
path of the sun is probably inferior to three-tenths of the mean
radius of the earth’s orbit.‘ It is fully recognised that such
deductions are essentially precarious. If the motions of non-
-1 Astron. Register, Vol. 11., pp. 37-39, 59-61, 82-84, 87-88, 164-168,
1864.
2 Cosmos, t. XXV., p. 429, 1864.
3 Motion of the Solar System in Space.—Month. Not., Roy. Astr. Soc.,
Vol. xxvi1., pp. 238-239, 1867.
* Comptes rendus, t. LXVI., pp. 1200 — 1207, 1868.
THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. A
periodic comets have no general tendency, the effect of translation
of our system through space on their apparent motion would be
seen in the elements indicated, provided the number considered
was sufficiently large. Hence evidence of this character is valuable
qualitatively. Quantitatively it is of course of inferior precision,
(62) Hurst, 1869.—Some correspondence on the motion of the
universe appearing in a London daily, it was republished in the
Astronomical Register as being of sufficient interest. One letter
by Hurst, in reply to an article in Fraser’s Magazine, points out
that the motion is more than “guessed at.” Hurst seemed to
think that Alcyone had been shewn to occupy the centre of gravity
of the sidereal system to which the sun belongs, that the direction
of motion was toward z Herculis, and its quantity in one year
33,350,000 miles.1 This would be for 1869— |
R.A. = 257°6, D.= +37°2, V.=1-06 miles per second.
(63) Proctor, 4869.—The second letter, by Proctor, severely
eriticises Hurst, and merely offers a somewhat fuller, but still
very incomplete statement of the state of knowledge on the
question at the time of writing.”
(64) Proctor, 1869.—In the Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, November 1869,’ Proctor discussed the
theory of a combination of the solar motion together with the stars
own motion. From a somewhat full examination of Main’s list of
1,167 stars, he points out that the evidence is apparently strongly
antagonistic to the accepted view that stars of small magnitude
are at greater distances, as the following table shews :—
Division according Appt. P.M. Resultant Struve’s No. of
to magnitude. if Distance. Distance. Stars.
1 0:857 I 1:0
I 2 0-182 47 eg lt 55
3 0-268 3°2 2°O7 146
4 0-208 4] oO 238
II 5 0°433 2°0 5°44 330
Ks: 0-191 4-5 7°86 368
a 0-173 5:0 11°34 21
1 The Motion of the Universe.—Astr. Reg., Vol. v1., p. 236.
” Astr. Reg., Vol. vi., pp. 2387-238.
3 Monthly Not. BR. A. Soc., Vol. xxx., pp. 8-18, 1869.
172 G. H. KNIBBS.
The mean result from I. was 0°"3015, from II., 0°’3022, that
is to say the mean distance of the stars of the first three magni-
tudes is slightly less than the mean distance of those of the next
three or four magnitudes! Proctor argues that large proper
motion is an argument for proximity; that since there is no
apparent agreement with proper motions and brightness, we are
forced to accept the former, rather than the latter, as the best
available evidence.
(65) Flammarion, 1872.—Flammarion treats upon the motion
of our translation through space in the third volume of his studies
published in 1872,’
(66) Villarceau, 1872.—In a note to the French Academy of
Sciences in 1872, Villarceau discusses theoretically the velocity
of light and the aberration constant in relation to the absolute
movement of the solar system in space.” The paper is obviously
important from the theoretical point of view, in respect of the
accurate determination of star places, from which the proper
motions are ascertained.
(67) Doppler, Fizeau, Huggins, Zoellner, 1873, etc.—The progress
of science about 1873 opened up an entirely new possibility of
investigating the sun’s motion in space. In 1841, Doppler of
Prague had pointed out that the system of waves in the lumini-
ferous medium emanating from a luminous point, must be affected
by its motion to or from an observer,® the consequence of which
he erroneously (Bolzano previously referred to erring with him)
thought would be a perceptible change of colour. The genius of
Fraunhofer* had opened up a way of detecting the shift of the
spectrum, since the lines crossing it, measured by him with such
amazing diligence, really do shift with motion of the light-source,
1 Translation du systéme solaire dans l’espace et relation du soleil avec
les étoiles les plus proches.—Etudes et lectures, t. 111., p. 59, 1872.
2 Sur la constante de l’aberration et la vitesse de la lumiére, con-
sidérées dans leurs rapports avec le mouvement absolu de translation du
systéme solaire.—Comptes rendus, t. LxxxXv., pp. 854 — 860.
3 Abhandl. d. kon. béhm. Ges, d. Wiss., Bd. 11., p. 467.
* Bibl. Univ. vi., 1817, pp. 21 — 26.
THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. VG 8:
an aspect of Doppler’s principle noticed by Fizeau! in 1848. It
was not till April 1868 however, that definite estimations of
movements to or from our system were made: they were then
communicated to the Royal Society of England by Huggins.’ It
is evident that the motion in the line of sight affords a perfectly
independent method of computing the solar motion. Eighteen
months after Huggins had reported his results, Zollner® devised
his ingenious reversion-spectroscope, which by doubling the line
displacements increased the possibility of their accurate measure-
ment.
(68) Villarceau, 1875.—In 1875 Villarceau contributed a
second note, in continuation of the subject referred to in his note
of 1872.4 No further remark is here necessary.
(69) Maawell-Hall, 1876.—By 1876 not only had some con- '
siderable advance been made in the determination of velocities
in the line of sight, a similar progress had also been made in the
estimation of the parallax, and therefore in the distance of stars.
In September of that year, Maxwell-Hall published his first memoir®
commenced in 1869, on the sidereal system, in which the sun,
and some of the nearer so-called ‘fixed’ stars were regarded as
bound together in a great dynamical system, assumed to be subject
to the ordinary laws of gravity. Hall supposed the stellar orbits
to be circular, and employing the same axes as Biot and Airy,
used heliocentric polar codrdinates in the developments of his
equations. In adopting the direction of solar motion for the
purpose of examining the evidence of the existence of a dynamical
stellar system, Hall remarks that the mean of the results from
1 Paper read before Soc. Philomathique, Paris, 23 Dec. 1848. See
Annal, de Chim. et de Phys., t. x1x., pp. 211 — 221, 1870.
2 Further observations etc., with an attempt to determine whether stars
are moving to or from the earth etc.—Phil. Trans., Vol. civitt., pp. 529
— 564, (1868).
> Leipzig, Ber. math. phys., Bd. xx111., pp. 300 —306, 1871.
* Recherches sur: la théorie de l’aberration, et considérations sur
Vinfluence du mouvement absolu du systéme solaire, dans le phénoméne
de Vaberration.—Comptes rendus, t. Lxxx1., pp. 163 - 171, 1875. Seealso
Conn. des Temps. Additions 1878.
5 Mem. Roy. Astr. Soc., Vol. xu111., pp. 157-197, Sept. 1876.
174 G. H. KNIBBS.
Airy’s two suppositions is prima facie the most probable, 2.e.,
R.A. = 259°2, D.= +32°1 for the epoch 1840.
Reducing to 1850 the mean of Argelander’s, Lundahl’s, and
O. Struve’s results as I.; putting Galloway’s reduced result from
southern stars as IJ.; and the mean of Airy’s two results also
reduced to 1850 as III., he adopted the general mean for 1850,
as shewn hereunder,
R.A. D:+.
he 25 9R aly 34 So.
II. 260°33 34°20
III. 259-18 32:05
Mean 259-51 33°39
or say R.A. = 259°:85, D. = + 33°°65
Hall considered the possible case of the sun and nearer stars
revolving about a gigantic central body, and also of their revolving
about their common centre of inertia. Using the parallaxes of
a Centauri, and 61 Cygni, assumed as 0-936 and 0°"422 respec-
tively, to determine the constants of his equations, and comparing
the observed with his computed motions, he concluded that the
centre lies towards Andromeda, instead of toward Hydra, and
that the motion is about a common centre of inertia rather than
about some gigantic mass. The place assigned for the centre was
for 1850,
RA=10°°4, D.= +27°°8
A second calculation gave
ROA 92D) 26
The angular velocity of the sun about this centre was 0°”06612
per annum, 20 million years constituting the ‘Annus Magnus’
required to complete a revolution, whose radius was 31 million
times the earth’s mean distance from the sun. The whole gravi-
tative mass was estimated to be 78 million times that of the sun,
although the distribution at ~ of a sidereal unit apart would
indicate only 34 million. It should be added that in his discussion,
Hall availed himself of existing knowledge of the radial velocities
of stars, which, taken with parallax and proper motion, permitted
of the absolute velocities being computed.
THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 175
(70) Leo de Ball, 1877.—From the proper motions of 67 stars,
Leo de Ball found for the epoch 1860, the values
R.A. =269°O D. = + 23°°2
as defining the direction of the apex of the solar motion.’
(71) Preston, 1878.—In 1878, Tolver Preston raised the question
whether the motion of the sun in space is not due to the reaction
of the mechanical energy of the developed heat, this not being
produced uniformly throughout its surface.”
(72) Klinkerfues, 1878.—In 1878, Klinkerfues applied Bessel’s
method of calculating and cartographically representing the poles
of the proper motion in considering the fixed-star system, and the
parallaxes and motions of its members.’ He concluded that the
stars Vega, Capella, Sirius, and Fomalhaut have parallel motion
and belong to one system, or at least move as if they did ; a con-
clusion which Kobold points out loses its significance, if it be
remembered that the computed radiation-point of the convergence,
is very nearly identical with the antiapex of Madler’s solar-motion,
adopted by Klinkerfues. The radiation point of the divergence was
R.A. = 272°°5, D. = +32°4
while Madler’s direction, as before mentioned, was
eA. = 261-76 Di= + 39-9.
(73) Masxwell-Hall, 1875.—Further data being now to hand in
regard to the parallaxes and radial velocities of about 23 stars,
their motions were investigated with reference to Maxwell-Hall’s
hypothesis: the results on the whole appeared to confirm the
theory of the earlier paper.*
(74) Clerk-Maxwell, 1879.—In a letter to Mr. Todd of the
Washington N.A. Office, dated 19th March, 1879, Clerk-Maxwell
remarked that if the sun be moving through the ether, the time
_ 1 Untersuchungen uber die eigene Bewegung des Sonnensystems.—
Inaugural-dissertation, Bonn, 1877.
? A consideration regarding the proper motion of the sun in space.—
Phil. Mag., Vol. vi., Ser. 5, pp. 398-394, 1878.
3 Ueber Fixstern-Systeme, Parallaxen und Bewegungen.—Verdffent-
lichen der k. Sternwarte zu Géttingen, pp. 29 - 53, 1878.
* Monthly Not. Roy. Astr. Soc., Vol. xxxtx., pp. 126-133, 1878.
176 G. H. KNIBBS.
occupied by the light in passing from a planet as Jupiter to the
earth, ought to vary as the planet moves through different signs
of the zodiac. Hence he thought it might be possible to at least
detect the existence of the motion in this way.1
(75) Lagrange, C., 1880.—Lagrange in 1880 contributed an
article to “Ciel et Terre,” on the apex of the solar motion through
space.” ®
(75a) Schénfeld, 1852.—In 1882, Schonfeld introduced into
the discussion of the sun’s motion in space a term representing a
possible rotation in the plane of the Milky-Way.’ [Not having
access to the volume of the quarterly journal of the Astronomische
Gesellschaft containing his treatise, 1am unable to more fully
refer to it. |
(76) Rancken, 1882.—Rancken of Brahestad, Finland,‘ in 1882
adopting Gylden’s hypothesis as to the parallax of the stars,’ and
employing Argelander’s proper motions of 250 stars,° and Leo de
Ball’s proper motions of 80 southern stars,’ computed the direction
and quantity of the solar motion from the P. Ms. in right ascension,
and in declination, considered independently. Denoting for
brevity’s sake, the computation from the former by R.A’, and
from the latter by R.A. and D.; and putting E for the annual
motion in terms of the mean distance of the earth from the sun ;
he obtained the results hereunder :—
From Argelander’s P.Ms.—
R.A’. =285°0; RA 846, WD,
From de Ball’s P.Ms.—
R.A’. = 273°°8; R.A. = 244°1, D.= +17°5, E= 4:59
+ 37°5, H=10°85
1 Proc. Roy. Soc., Lond., Vol. xxx., pp. 108-110, 1879.
2 Le point fixe, 1., p. 217, 1880.
3 Vierteljahrsschrift d. Astr. Ges., Bd. xvi1., pp. 256 et seq., 1882.
* Ueber die Higenbewegung der Fixsterne.—Astr. Nach. Bd. cIv., pp.
149 — 156, 1882.
§ Vierteljahrsschrift der Astron. Gesell., Bd. x11., Heft 4, Gyldén’s
hypothesis makes the parallax a function both of magnitude and proper-
motion.
6 Bonner Beobachtungen, Bd. vit.
7Inaugural-dissertation, 1877.
THE SUN'S MOTION IN SPACE. WS
According to Gyldén’s hypothesis a star with large proper
motion has also large parallax. Recalculating with the same
material by dividing one side of the fundamental equations, by
the parallax, instead of multiplying it into the other side, the
normal equations are changed, and the results then became :—
From Argelander’s P.Ms.—
R.A. — 275°°3; R.A:=288"°5, D. = + 41-0, H=10°6
From de Ball’s P.Ms.—
R.A’. = 281°0; R.A. = 240°4, D.= +11°9, E= 7:83
The inconsistency of these results, which seem to indicate that
the proper motions cannot be explained on the hypothesis of
generally indiscriminate motion, suggested a further analysis,
having regard to the fact that several astronomers have suspected
a general drift of the stars in a direction parallel to the plane of
the Milky Way. A selection was made of 106 stars, whose
galactic latitude lay between the limits + 30°, and whose yearly
component of proper motion in galactic latitude did not exceed
0:"25. The suitable investigation of the solar motion from these
gave,
eee 04 wd) eee = 2, D5 ol: 9, WH 9°79
Rancken concluded that a more accurate and thorough investi-
gation of the question of general motion parallel to the plane of the
Milky Way was essential in reaching truer views concerning the
proper motions of the stars. :
(77) Plummer, 1883.—In Galloway’s discussion of the direction
of the solar motion from southern stars, the assumption of the
point to be determined so affects the result that, whatever the data,
there can be derived only a relatively small correction. Owing
to this fact, and to the circumstance that more exact material had
become available through the publication of Stone’s catalogue,'
_ Plummer in 1883,’ undertook the investigation from Galloway’s
stars. The method of calculation was Airy’s, the magnitudes
' The Cape Catalogue, 1880.
7 Mem. Roy. Astr. Soc., Vol. XLVII., pp. 327 - 352, 1883.
L—Nov. 7, 1900
178 G. H. KNIBBS. ;
adopted, Gould’s in the Uranometria Argentina; and the stellar
parallax that given by Peters.’ The result according to the two
suppositions previously referred to, the latter of which was the
probable one, was, when Galloway’s stars only were used :—
(a) R.A.=276-0, D.= +27, R.=1-470
(0) 262°7, —1°5, 0-724 |
R denoting as previously the angular value of the motion viewed
from a first magnitude star. The differences from the positions
computed by Galloway himself were so remarkable, that a further
investigation was undertaken in which all the Cape catalogue stars
whose proper motions were greater than 0:°"1 annually were
included. The results from the 274 available stars were
(a) R.A. =281°3, D.= +25°8, R.=0-772
(b) 270:1, 20°3, 1-690
The deviation from other results being still great, and an
examination of the influence of certain stars shewing that four
greatly affect the result, suggested the adoption of a change in
the manner of grouping them. Relying upon the results of
Safford’s discussion, which apparently shewed that stellar distances
should be approximately in the inverse ratio of the proper motions,
a reinvestigation was undertaken on the assumption that the
distances of the stars were as shewn in the following table :—
“Mt “t Mt “ Mt “ “
Proper Motion 34+ 2-1 1:0-8 ‘8-6 -6--4-4--3 3-1 -T-
Distance ...4 | J:67 2°14 3 5 10) eas
No. of Stars... 7 16 7 9° 16 72 “ioe
The computation now gave for the place of the point to which
the solar motion was directed, and for the quantity of the motion
R.A. = 276°1, D, = +26°5, R.=0°926
A close criticism of the general result convinced Plummer that
Safford’s doctrine as to the relation of distance and proper motion
had some degree of probability. On the other hand there did not
appear to be any decisive evidence of change of distance with
3 Struve’s Etudes d’Astronomie stellaire, p. 106.
THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 179
magnitude; in fact excepting first magnitude stars, the evidence
pointed to the other way, since putting R’ to denote the solar
motion seen from the mean distance of each magnitude the results
were as follows, viz.:—
Magnitude 1 2 3 4 5 6 il
Motion R’ 0-458 0-108 0-077 0-101 0-089 0-056 0-077
(78) Kovesligethy, 1884.—Kovesligethy stated, writing from
O’Gyalla Observatory in March, 1886,' that at the beginning of
the year 1883, he endeavoured, from the values of star-velocities
in the line of sight (published in the Monthly Notices of the
Royal Astronomical Society),* to determine the quantity and
direction of the sun’s motion. The result, from about 70 stars, for
1881-0 was
R.A. = 261°°0, D.= + 35°1, V. =8°6 German geog. miles per sec.
Fourteen stars approximately at right-angles to the path gave a
residual velocity of 1 geog. mile per second, instead of zero, which
supported fairly well the deduction of direction. These results
were published in an Hungarian paper. (Haza és Kilfold) Ist
December, 1884.
(79) Folie, 1884.—In August 1884, Folie pointed out the
significance of the solar motion in regard to what he denominated
“systematic aberration,”’ an aberration depending upon the
relation of the velocity of translation of the solar system to the
velocity of light, and he remarked that, although it had been so
far neglected in determinations of velocity of translation, it
is destined nevertheless to play an important réle in future
astronomy. Folie also pointed out that there is a further
aberration which may be called “objective aberration,” depending
upon the velocity of the body emitting luminous rays to the
velocity of their transmission through the ether.*
1 Bestimmung der Bewegung des Sonnensystems durch Spectral-
Messungen.—Astr. Nach., Bd. cxiv., pp. 327-328, 1886.
2 Monthly Not. RK. A. Soc., Nos. 32, 36, 37, 38, 41.
* Un chapitre inédit d’astronomie sphérique.—Astr. Nach. 2607, Bd.
CIX., pp. 225 — 238,
* See Houzeau, Astr. Nachr. No. 496 et 498, 1844; Herschel, Ibid., No.
520, 1845; Villarceau, C. R., t. Lxxv., 1872, Lxxx1., 1875; C. des Temps,
1878.
180 G. H. KNIBBS.
(80) Bischof, 1884.—In 1884 Bischof also investigated the
proper motion of the solar system.’ From 480 stars, he found for
the codrdinates of the solar-apex for the epoch 1855
R.A. = 285°°2, D.= + 48°5
Applying Airy’s method, however, the result was
R.A. = 290°°8, D. = + 43°°5
(81) Homann, 1585.—Three extensive series of measurements
of the radial velocities of the stars, made respectively at Greenwich,
by Huggins, and by Seabroke, admitted of a determination of the
solar motion from those data alone. This was undertaken by
Homann in December 1885.” He found for the three series :—
i. R.A. =320°1, D.= +41°2, V.=39°'3 kilometres
itt. 309°5, + 69:7, 48°5 sf
ili. 2788, + 13°6, 24°5 - 3
These results though not in perfect accord, yet shew sufficient to
indicate that much isto be expected of the application of the method.
(82) Ubaghs, 1886.—In February 1886, Ubaghs submitted a
paper on the determination of the proper motion of our system,
to the Royal Academy of Sciences of Brussels.’ Comparing the
results of Bradley’s. catalogue with those of the Fundamental
Catalogues of the Astronomische Gesellschaft and with the B.A.C.
he obtained the following results for the epoch 1810?
Mag. No. Stars R.A. D. R' 7 E.
9 56 =. 258°2 4. 30°71 057” =. 65 088
3 145 259-1 25:9 045 ‘40-112
4 263 265-2 26-3 —--028 2] 112
4644 262-4 26-6
1 Untersuchungen iiber die Eigenbewegung des Sonnensystems—Bonn
1884. e
2 Beitrige zur Untersuchung der Sternbewegungen und der Lichtbe-
wegung durch Spectralmessungen—Inaugura!-Dissertation, Berlin 1885.
Also :—Bestimmung der Bewegung des Sonnensystems durch Spectral-
Messungen.—Astr. Nach., Bd. cxiv., pp. 25-26, 1886. Also The Observatory
Volk ix. p) Li:
3 Détermination de la direction et de la vitesse du transport du systéme
solaire dans l’espace. lme partie— Bull. l Acad. roy. Bruxelles 3° Sér., t. x1.
pp. 67, 186 — 139, 1886; paper printed also in the Mémoires de 1|’Acad.,
t. XLVII., 1886.
* Quoted by L. Struve.—Mém. Acad. St. Pétersh., 7me Série, t. xxxv.
THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 18]
R’ denoting the annual motion at the mean distance of stars of
the corresponding magnitude, z the parallax agreeing with the
magnitude according to Pickering, and E. the absolute annual
motion in terms of the mean radius of the earth’s orbit about the
sun. The values of E are singularly small compared with other
estimates.
(83) folie, 1686.—In April 1886, Folie, referring again to his
previous communication to the Astronomische Nachrichten, quotes
Ubagh’s results above given." Beyond quotation and brief com-
ment nothing fresh is indicated.
(84) Ludwig Struve, 1887."—Struve, comparing recent Pulkova
catalogues with Bradley’s observations reduced by Auwers,
obtained 2,509 stars from which the constant of precession and
the apex of the solar motion could be determined. Putting R.A’.
for the result determined from the P.M. in right ascension only,
Struve found for the year 1805
Pee 2120 — 270° 1; Di — +363
His final deduction was !
[Ble == Oy ID) to Yl)
(85) Folie, 1888.—In a theoretical paper,’ discussing a question
raised by Battermann,* Folie points out, that if, as is required by
rigour, the aberration and systematic parallax are introduced in
any expression for the variation of the mean coordinates of a star’s
positions at intervals of time widely separated, the parallax of the
star and the velocity of the solar system may be deduced from the
variations.
(86) Kobold, 1890.—In 1890 Kobold commenced his elaborate
investigations on the motions obtaining among the members of the
* Note sur le mouvement du systéme solaire.—Astr. Nach., Bd. cxiv.>
pp. 355 — 356. ;
? Bestimmung der Constante der Praecession und der eigenen Bewegung
des pe del’ Acad. St. Pétersbourg, 7me Série, t. XXXvV.,
3, 1887.
* Sur la détermination de la vitesse systématique et de la parallaxe des
toiles, etc.—Astr. Nach. Bd. cx1x., pp. 343 — 346.
*See Astr. Nach., Bd. cxvitt., pp. 369-372. Folie in reply, Ibid.,
Bd. cx1x., pp. 185-186; Battermann’s rejoinder, Ibid., Bd. cx1x., pp. 297
- 300.
182 G. H. KNIBBS.
stellar system.’ He recognised the necessity of guarding against
any preponderating influence of stars in particular parts of the
heavens forming groups subject to a common drift, such as had
been suspected by Michell,” and definitely revealed by the investi-
gations of Proctor,’ Huggins,* Safford,’ and others. This undue
influence can be avoided by grouping the stars in different regions,
and using the mean proper motion of the region. At the date
when the investigation was undertaken the positions and proper
motions of 622 stars of the two catalogues of the Astronomische
Gesellschaft were available. The general result of previous work
was stated to be
R.A. = 266°7, D.= +31°°0.
Forming 20 groups arranged in order of their proper motions, it
was found that the distance from the adopted pole could be con-
nected with the proper motion itself by the equation
° 0 1 ° I
—0°°49 + 2°183 PM —0-°005 (P.M?
—P.M. denoting the proper motion. Dividing the stars into six
classes according to the following scheme, the various results for
the place of the parallactic pole shewn in the following table were
obtained :—
Class P.M. Weight. R.A. D.
I > “547 1 259-4 —0-5
al
II. -292t0 547 3tol 2703 +26
Mean
MIT. 198 292 $ 4 2669 -13\
IV. 150 198 2 4 2629 441/7""""92 Sage
V. 120 150 2 4 267-7 me
VI. +100 120 4 4 2693 +42:
These results were to be regarded as provisional merely. The
epoch for the determination of the proper motions was 1755 -
' Ueber die Bewegungen im Fixsternsysteme.—Astr. Nach., Bd. cxxv.,
pp- 65 - 72.
2 See Phil. Trans., 1783, pp. 276 — 277.
3 Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond.. Vol. xvi11., pp. 169 —- 171, 1869.
* Brit. Assoc. Reports, Sect. 1873, pp. 34-35, and Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond.
Vol. xx11., pp. 251 — 254.
> Monthly Not. Roy. Astr. Soc., Vol. xxxvitl., pp. 295 — 297, 1878.
THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 183
1865, and the result is for the mean of those dates, viz., for the
1810-0.
(87) Stwmpe, 1890.—In 1890 Stumpe undertook an investiga-
tion of the motion of the solar system having regard to the
possibility of some general law in the motus peculiaris of fixed
stars, existing.’ All stars used in the investigation were reduced
by Struve’s Precession-constant to the equinox of 1855-0, the right
ascension upon the Fundamental system of Newcomb, the declina-
tions on Boss’s system. The material for the determination was
fully discussed and carefully corrected. Drawing attention to the
fact that in previous determinations it has always been assumed
that the motus peculiaris’ of the stars is subject to no regular law
—such as was contemplated in J. Herschel’s hypothesis of a
rotation in the plane of the Galaxy—Stumpe introduced into his
equations, for the motion of the solar system, which in other
respects were identical with Airy’s, terms denoting the galacto-
centric right ascension, declination, and distance of the sun, and
the right ascension of the ascending node of the Milky-way and
the inclination of its plane and the equator. The stars were
divided into four groups according to the magnitude of the proper
motions, with the result shewn in the following table :
Group. P.M. No.ofStars. R.A. D. R.
L 016t00°32 551 987-4 +42°0 0-140
Il 0°32 064 340 279-7 40:5 0-295
Ill 064 1:28 105 9879 321 0-608
IV, 1:28°¢uward 5g 285-2 - 30-4 2-057
Total ] 05 4 Mean 985 ‘0 36° y) or about 39° taking account
of number of stars.
R denoting the ratio of the annual motion to the mean distance
of the group. Thus it would appear that the distance of the stars
is in general reciprocally proportional to their proper motion.
* Untersuchungen tiber die Bewegung des Sonnensystems.—Astr. Nach.
Bd. cxxv., pp. 385 - 426, 1890. See also The Observatory, Vol. xrv., pp.
68-69.
_* The motus peculiaris is the absolute motion of the star itself, while
the ‘ proper motion’ is the apparent motion arising from the combined
effect of the motus peculiaris of the star, and that of the solar system.
184 G. H. KNIBBS.
There was no definite indication of a general rotation, such as
was symbolically represented in the form of the equations of
motion.
(88) Boss, 1890.— Using stars in the Albany zone, D.=0-°50'
to 5°10’, Boss in 1890 deduced the following results by adopting
Airy’s method :'
Series. S205 Mag. R.A. D. R.
1 1385 66 “2804 8498 01238
2 144 8:6 285-7 45'1 0:1373
Both 279% 7:6 283°3 44-1? 01309
53 253 CY Ase 51:5
Quoting Struve’s, and Bischof’s, and pointing out that the general
result was about
R.A. = 287° and D.= + 47°
Boss seemed to think that the most probable position was
R.A. = 280°, D.= + 40°
He pointed out that Struve’s resuit reduced on the system of the
American Ephemeris would change its declination from +27°°3
to +37°7.
(89) Hecker, 1891.— Hecker in 1891 by developing the observed
motion of a star as a function of its position and distance, and by
so determining the point that the motion in both codrdinates
vanishes, obtained the values :°
Division I, R.A. =272°5, D.= + 13°°8
Pee? 267°8 4°7
or combining the results -
R.A. =270°0, D.+9°°9.
(90) Monck, 1892.—Pointing out that although there is a con-
siderable amount of agreement, in the determinations of the solar
motion in space, the discrepancies are such as to indicate the pre-
carious nature, and indeed even the inadmissibility of some of the
+ A determination of the Solar Motion.—Astr. Journ., Vol. 1x., pp. 161
— 165, 1890. See also, The Observatory, Vol. x111., pp. 217, 218.
* Newcomb corrects this afterwards to 42°°9.
* Ueber die Darstellung der Higenbewegungen der Fixsterne und die
Bewegung des Sonnensystems.—Miinchen, 1891.
THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 185
underlying assumptions, a point discussed by him at some length,
Monck abandoned entirely all classification in respect of magni-
tude, and all assumptions with regard to distance." Employing
Dunkin’s (i.¢e., Main’s) 1,167 stars, he tabulated the numbers in
each hour of R.A. shewing increasing, and also those shewing
diminishing N.P.D. The great preponderance of stars with
increasing north polar distances, indicated that the apex of solar-
motion was in the northern hemisphere, and that the north declin-
ation was considerable, The apex seemed to lie between R.A. =
16 hrs. and R.A.=21 hrs., and the declination to be about + 45°
A second table was then formed, giving similarly the numbers of
stars with increasing and also with diminishing right ascensions.
This table shewed the R.A. of the apex to lie between 18 hrs. and
19 hrs. Monck concluded further that this method would also
serve to shew the rate of our progression, provided we assume
that the stars are moving indifferently in every direction. He
roughly estimated the velocity to be twenty miles per second,
subject to an uncertainty of several miles. His rough values are
R.A. = 280°, D.= + 45°, V.=20 miles per second.
Monck thinks that the proper motions of not less than 10,000
stars are requisite for determining the apex ‘within 2.or 3 degrees,’
or the sun’s velocity ‘without a considerable percentage of error.’
The paper contains no rigorous mathematical statement of the
fundamental assumptions, and the attempt at a quantitative
estimate is admittedly ‘rough’ only.
(91) Seeliger, 1892, (March).—Seeliger in his public address at
the Munich Academy of Sciences, on the occasion of the 133rd
anniversary of its foundation,” makes some important observations
as to correct conceptions of the problem of solar motion, pointing
out that it is ‘very frequently, perhaps most frequently miscon-
ceived,’’ as was established by L. Lange.’
*I. The Sun’s Motion in Space, I. and IIJ.—Publications of the Astr.
Soc. of the Pacific, Vol. x1v., No. 22, pp. 70-77, 1892.
* Ueber allgemeine Probleme der Mechanik des Himmels, pp. 1 - 29,
Miinchen, 1892. * Loe. cit., p. 29.
* Die geschichtliche Entwickelung des Bewegungshegriffes, etc.,
Leipzig, 1886.
186 G. H. KNIBBS.
(92) Ristenpart, 1892.—Ristenpart compared the zones of
Bessel with Becker’s (Berlin) northern zones,’ the interval being
about a half century, in connection with an elaborate investigation
of the constant of precession, and of the solar motion. Ristenpart
concluded that the Galaxy consists of two intersecting planes, the
coérdinates of the principal and secondary poles, in 1850 being 2?
Pole of Primary plane of Galaxy R.A.=196°6, D.= +18°7
5, secondary i, LEST 55°'8
While Houzeau gave as the result 192-2, 27°5
In developing his equations he took account of Schonfeld’s
hypothesis of a rotation in the plane of the Milky-Way. Dividing
the stars into four classes as follows, and abandoning the hypothesis
of a rotation he obtained the results :—
Class; 32.2 P.M. R.A. D.
T. 85 over @:251° 302-2 4a
TE 221 over 0°158 286°3 29 8
IIT, 148 under 0:158 294:7 24°8
IV. 4,565 over 01 294°3 28:2
A second calculation, including that hypothesis gave—
Class I. R.A. 289°9 D.+33°3
Di. 280°3 33°9
ITI. 267°3 28:4
IV. 276°5 27-0
While a third, with a modification of the hypothesis, gave—
Class I. R.A. 290°6 344
II. 281°6 36°9
IE. 266°7 33:3
IV. 28°23 41:2
The results shew that when a term () depending on the rotation
is introduced
R.A. = 284°, D.= +30°
but if neglected,
R.A. = 261%, Di= 439"
1 Untersuchungen iiber die Constante der Praecession und die Beweg-
ung der Sonne im Fixsternsysteme.—Veroff. d. Grossh. Sternw. zu
Karlsruhe, Heft. 1v., pp. 197 — 288, 1892. 7? Ibid. p. 258. ;
THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 187
and when the hypothesis of a place for the centre of inertia is
introduced from Class IV., the one determination alone is allow-
ee. R.A. = 974°2, D-= +19°5
Referring to a modification of Bischof’s solution, Ristenpart pointed
out that the result is changed from
R.A. =290°8, D. = +43°5
to | 290°5 42°8
practically the same result. The epoch throughout is 1850.
On the basis of Gyldén’s hypothesis the velocity is about
V.=25°6 kilometres per second,
the simple mean of Homann’s results is 28°8 kilometres. Risten-
part considered further the relation of the solar motion to the
stellar motus peculiaris. He shewed that the P.M. affords a far
better criterion of distance than magnitude does. From his
analysis it appeared further that the product of the mean P.M.
and distance of any class of stars continually increases with
increase of distance from the sun: and that the linear motus
peculiaris is a function of the stars position in space.
The following distance relations are given by Ristenpart :—
Magnitudes if 2 3. fw 5 6 7 8 9
Pickering °794 1°258 1:994 3:160 5:006 7:929
Bonner Durch- ,, : ; ; : ; ; ;
musterung 1:000 1:531 2°343 3°583 5°473 8:345 12°690 19-231 28°967
(93) Porter, 1892 (Oct.)—Employing Schénfeld’s method’ and
an adaptation of his formule, Porter deduced the solar motion
from the 1,340 proper motions given in No. 12 of the publications
of the Cincinnati Observatory.” He divided these according to
their magnitude into four groups, and obtained the results shewn
hereunder :—
Grou. P.M. % RA. Dd. ate,
i 108 Sib e259, 453-77 0-16
II. 03-06 533 280°7 40-1 0°30
III. 06-1:2 142 285-2 34:0 0°55 me
BV Ve 0 277-0 34:9 1:66 |
*Vierteljahrsschrift Astr. Gesell. Bd. xviz., p. 256.
? Astr. Journ., Vol. x11., pp. 91-93, 1892. Also The Observatory, Vol.
XVI., p. 456, 1892.
188 G. H. KNIBBS.
R. denotes the motion as seen from the mean distance of the
group. It will be noticed that these results appear to confirm
the assumption that the P.M. is an index of a star’s distance,
since the proportionality between it and the annual solar motion
is quite remarkable.
(94) Vogel and Kempf, 1-92.—The motion of a number of stars
in the line of sight had been determined by Vogel at the astro-
physical observatory at Potsdam, spectrographically.' Of these,
45 out of 51 observed had a probable error of not more than +0°25
Ger. geog. miles. At the suggestion of Vogel, Kempf undertook
the investigation of the sun’s motion.” In the first calculation it
was assumed that the influence of the proper motions of the stars
would disappear in the mean, and that the motions were indepen-
dent. This assumption gave the result |
R.A. = 206.°1, D. = + 45:9, V.=2°5 German geog. miles
which it was alleged lay wholly outside the limit of previguy
determinations.
A second calculation in which different weights were assigned,
and the stars were grouped in certain instances gave
R.A. = 159°7, D. = +50°0, V.=1:75 German geog. miles
Finally accepting the values of earlier observations, viz.,
R.A. 266°7, D.+31°0? a computation was made of the velocity
alone, giving V. = 1:66 German geog. miles. The provisional
character of the result, since it depends upon a few stars of
uncertain distance, is fully admitted. |
(95) Kapteyn, 1893 (Jan. )—In 1893 Kapteyn commenced the
publication of his researches on the distribution of the stars in
space, using the Draper catalogue, and taking account of their
1 Publicationen des Astrophysik. Observ., Bd. vir., Theil 1, 1892.
? Versuch einer Ableitung der Bewegung des Sonnensystems aus den
Potsdamer spectrographischen Beobachtumecy, H.C. Vogel.—Astr. Nach,
Bd. cxxxit., p. 81, 1893.
3 Best. d. Constant d. Praecess., etc.— Mém. de I’ Acad. St. Pétersbourg
Tme Sér., t. XXXv.
THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 189
spectral type.’ In all there were 2,357 stars, of which 1,189
belonged to the first, 1,106 to the second, and 62 to the third
spectral type ; these types were considered because any general
theory of distance as related to magnitude is obviously imperfect
unless the character of the emitted light is regarded. The general
result of Kapteyn’s researches, in which Ludwig Struve’s position
of the apex of solar motion was accepted for the purpose of the
reductions, is given hereinafter, see Kapteyn 1898. These values
were
R.A. = 2767, D.= +34
for the epoch 1865.
(96) Kobold, 1893.—Kobold opened his 1893 treatise? with a
short discussion on the essential nature of the methods previously
adopted for determining the sun’s path in space. Stating that.
these may be divided into two species, viz., those that avoid all
hypotheses in computing the direction of motion, and those that
are deduced on some definite hypothesis, Argelander’s and
Bessel’s methods belonging to the one, and Airy’s and Schénfeld’s
to the other. Argelander so determined the direction that the
sum of the squares of the differences of direction between the
observed and the computed parallactic motion should be a mini-
mum. Bessel computed the poles of the observed proper motions,
and determined the direction of the solar motion as the pole of a
great circle so situated, that the pole of the proper motions should
approximate as near to its pole as possible. Airy determined the
direction and magnitude of the motion together, and was forced
to adopt an assumption as to relative distances of the stars, so as
to suitably combine his data. Finally Schonfeld introduced by
way of explanation of the differences between the deduced paral-
lactic motion and the observed proper motion, the notion of
rotation parallel to the plane of the Milky-Way. As already
1 Over de verdeeling van de sterren in de ruimte. Verslagen der Afd.
Natuurk. kon. Akad. v. Wetenschappen, 28 Jan. 1898, pp. 125-140. See
also The Observatory, Vol. xvi., p. 275, 1893.
2 Ueber die Bestimmung der eigenen Bewegung des Sonnensystems—
Astr. Nach. Bd. cxxxi1., pp. 305 — 326, 1893.
190 G. H. KNIBBS.
stated, Bessel had found from 71 stars that the poles of proper
motion were so distributed over the spherical surface that the
determination of a parallactic equator seemed hopeless. From
the proper motions of 3,268 stars of the Auwers-Bradley catalogue
1,374 poles whose uncertainty of position did not exceed 10:75
were accepted and divided into six classes. The distribution of
these on the celestial spherical surface was analysed by dividing
it into trapeziums and triangles at every 10° by hour and declina-
tions circles, and observing the distribution thereon. Kobold
concluded that by this analysis, it is certainly demonstrated that
the Besselian method conducts to an apex, for the solar motion,
not sensibly different from
R.A. = 266°1, D.= +0°4
as deduced in his earlier essay from 622 stars, He discussed the
reason why different methods should lead to results so much at
variance ; for example, Argelander’s method leads to the result
R.A. =26078,, De= +3153
but Bessel’s to
R.A. =261°4, D.= —6°°0,
the cause of difference he concluded is not to be sought in the
difference of data but in the treatment thereof. The essential
feature of Argelander’s method is that it supposes the stellar
proper motions to be analogous to errors of observation. An
examination shews most obviously, that the “law of error” is not
applicable, and therefore its application can lead only to false
results. Kobold pointed out that the magnitude of the sun’s
motion is comparable to that of the stars, and discussed the cases
where it is supposed very great, or on the other hand negligible
in relation thereto. He stated that Airy made the same assump-
tion as Argelander, modified only by the addition that the distance
of the stars is reciprocally proportional to their proper motion.
Airy’s solution really depended for the element of distance on
magnitude.’ The fuller discussion of the result by Argelander’s:
method and by Bessel’s seemed to prove that the latter is
altogether preferable. |
wae Monthly Not. Roy. Astr. Soc., Vol. x1x., p. 178.
THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 191
(97) Harzer, 1893.—In 1893 Harzer criticised the mathematical
features of Kobold’s investigation last mentioned, and defined
the analytic conditions which should, in his opinion, determine
Kobold’s solution."
(98) Risteen, 1893 (June )—Risteen, using Vogel’s list of 51 stars
with the exception of 9 which he thought ought, for various
reasons, to be excluded as likely to vitiate the result, deduced
from the remaining 42 stars?
R.A. = 218°0, D. = + 45°0, V. = 10-9 English statute miles persec.
(99) Kobold, 1894.—On 4th June 1894, an investigation by
Kobold of the proper motions of the Auwers-Bradley Catalogue,
according to the Besselian method, was received by the Imperial
Leopold-Caroline German Academy of Scientific Investigators,
and published in 1895.2 This contains the places of the 3,268
stars previously mentioned for the epoch 1810-0, and their proper
motions; the latter being determined for the interval 1755 — 1865,
the mean of which is the epoch referred to. From the 3,268 stars
1,408 are selected, the poles of whose motion do not shew a greater
uncertainty of direction than 10°5. Remarking that the relation
of the weights in different instances will be as follows :—
ae oor Oa ORs Gus (ee Men Tes hoes
Weight ... ee sts EO a2 NO 34-6 100-0) 316-2
Kobold divided these stars into six classes, the limits of uncer-
tainty being as hereinafter shewn. The 1,408 stars are also
divided into six series, following the scale of the magnitudes of
the proper motions, viz.,
Series ce At 155 C D E Fr
Proper motion <0°l 0°1—0'2 0°2—0'4 0°4-0°8 0-8—1°6 > 1°6
No.of Stars... 618 474 210 81 17 8
* Bemerkung zu Herrn Kobold’s Aufsatz ‘* Ueber die Bestimmung der
eigenen Bewegung des Sonnensystems.”—Astr. Nach., Bd. cxxxill1., pp.
79 - 82, 1893.
2 Astr. Journ. Vol. xu11., pp. 74-75, 18938, also The Observatory, Vol. xv1.,
p- 274, 1893.
* Untersuchung der Higenbewegungen des Auwers-Bradley-Catalogs
nach der Bessel’schen Methode.—Nova Acta d. k. Leop. Carol. Deutsch.
Akad. d. Naturforscher, Bd. ux1v., No. 5, pp. 215 — 368, 1895.
192 G. H. KNIBBS.
A count was then made of the distribution of the poles of
proper motion over the celestial sphere, and after shewing that
the approximate mean error is sensibly identical for each class,
from which it appears that the influence of the chance errors of
observation are unrecognisable, Kobold deduced the codrdinates
of the sun’s motion from the stars in each class as follows: —
Class Stars. e(d) R.A. 1D
I. 24 <0°°6 264°4 +12°°0 Epoch 1810-0 ©
II. 43 0:7 tol--0) 26455 - 3'5
TIT... LOL, A ees 262 —07
DV. = 210) 19° 3-2" 265-0 — 4:7
Wee as Se 4 Ot Bort —1-4
Vi 1636 9529) 0: Sos —4-3
Total 1,400 Mean result 266°6 -— 3:0
Treating the whole of the equations the result was
Reap 20670) oi Soa
practically identical with the mean result as shewn.
Kobold discussed this with respect to the quantity of the solar
P.M., from which it appears that it is considerably smaller for the
declination — 3° than for + 31°, the former assumption giving
V =0°'61 German miles per sec.,
while the latter gives 1:23. He moreover deduced the quantity
of the sun’s motion in relation to the members of two series of
stars of which the parallaxes are known, and also the velocity in
the line of sight from spectroscopic observations. The first series
contains 11 stars, the second 18. The general result is that the
evidence points to the apex being very near the celestial equator
rather than about 30° away.
(100) Gyldén, 1894 (Aug.)—The relations of magnitude and
proper motion to parallax are obvicusly important in connection
with the analysis of the sun’s motion. An attempt was made by
Gyldén in 1894 by discussing stars of known parallax with various
proper motions and magnitudes to define those relations quantita-
THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 193
tively! The results have been subsequently considered in dis-
cussions of the solar motion.
(101) Kobold, 1895 (Jan.)—In continuation really of his pre-
vious investigations, Kobold contributed to the Astronomische
Nachrichten in 1895, a paper on the relation between the different
methods of investigating the motion of the solar system.” His
general equations contain terms representing the components of
absolute motion, both of the sun and of the stars, that is to say
the so-called motus peculiaris of both are taken into consideration.
He points out that if Airy’s method is applied to Vogel’s 51 stars
the result is
R.A. = 247°0, D.= +47°9, R.=0°"191
instead of 206°1 45°9
R being the motion at the mean distance of the 51 stars, but
points out that the weight of a determination based upon so incon-
siderable a number of stars is small. The mathematical theory
of the difference between the methods is fully exhibited.
(102) Kobold, 1895 (Mar.)—Kobold discussed the relation of
the Argelander and Airy to the Besselian method of investigating
the solar motion, in March 1895.> He states (a) that Argelander’s
and Airy’s methods should give the same point for the sun’s apex
of motion, the fundamental supposition being that the motus
peculiaris perpendicular to the line of sight will mutually cancel
one another. The apex points lie on both sides of R.A. 275°
D.+30° ina narrow zone parallel to the Milky Way: it is not
possible that the true apex lies within this region. (6) The
method dependent upon motion in the line of sight supposes that
the motus peculiaris in that direction vanishes, and will give a
result in agreement neither with the method of Argelander nor
* Ueber die mittleren Parallaxen von Sternen verschiedener Gréssen-
classen und verschiedener scheinbaren Bewegungen—Astr. Nach. Bd.
CXXXVI., pp. 289 — 300.
2 Ueber die Beziehungen verschiedener Methoden zur Untersuchung
der Bewegung des Sonnensystems.—Astr. Nach. Bd. cxxxvil., pp. 343 -
348, 1895.
7 Bemerkungen zur Bessel’schen Methode der Untersuchung der
Higenbewegung.—Astr. Nach. Bd. cxxxvit., pp. 389 — 398, 1895.
M—WNov. 7, 1900.
194 G. H. KNIBBS.
that of Bessel. (c) The Besselian method proceeds upon the
assumption that positive and negative departures from the paral-
lactic motion (due to the sun’s motion) are equally probable. This
last method gives a point in the Milky Way
R.A. = 266°°3) Dy eal
and is of course the result previously given in 1894.
(103) Kapteyn, 1895 (May ).—In 1895 Kapteyn continued the
publication of his researches on the distribution of the velocities
of the stars in space,’ taking account of their spectral type; the
general result of such researches is given hereinafter, see Kapteyn
1898.
(104) Anding, 1895.—In his Habilitationschrift of about 1895
Anding’ discussed the relations between the methods of Bessel
and Argelander for the determination of the apex of the solar
motion, having special reference to Kobold’s work. For Kobold’s
reply see August 1895.
(105) Kobold, 1895 (Aug.)—Kobold having examined the
deductions of Anding, replied that the consequences reached by
his mathematical analysis were inconsistent with the actually
observed distribution of proper motions, and his hypothesis could
not be established.’ A connection between the distribution of
the stars and the position of the apex of motion was certainly
most apparent, but it was admittedly difficult to distinguish
whether the actual distribution was the consequence or the cause
of the position of the apex-point.
(106) Bompas, 1896 (Jan. and Mar.)—A brief discussion on a
possible explanation of the difference between the positions of the
apex of solar motion, when deduced from stars of different distances,
1 Over de verdeeling der kosmische snelheden.—Verslagen der Afd.
Natuurk. Kon. Akad. v. Wetenschappen, D1 4, 25 Mei 1895 - Apr. 1896,
‘pp. 4-18.
2 Beziehungen zwischen den Methoden von Bessel und Argelander zur
Bestimmung des Sonnenapex.—Habilitationschrift, 1895.
3 Ueber die Vertheilung der Sterne mit merklicher Higenbewegung.—
_Astr. Nach., Bd. cxxxix., pp. 65 — 78.
THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 195
was contributed by Bompas in January 1896." The results of
Herschel, Argelander, Airy, Dunkin, L. Struve, Boss and O.
Stumpe are given. Bompas thought it possible that there was
a systematic drift of the Milky Way. Later, viz., in February,
having noticed Homann’s determination from motion in the line
of sight,® he thought this some confirmation of the view previously
expressed.
(107) Anding, 1896 (Jan. )—Anding,* stating that experience
has shewn that the Besselian method of determining the direction
of the sun’s motion gives a result, different from that of other
methods, in which the same data are employed, submitted the
question to an analysis, by which he endeavoured to shew that
the reason of the disagreement was to be sought in the distribution
of the proper motions.” |
(1074) Kobold, 1896 (March/—Kobold replied to Anding’s
argument three months later, pointing out that although the dis-
tribution of proper motions does affect the result, that fact does
not explain the systematic difference referred to.
(108) Stwmpe, 1896 (April)—Pointing out that Airy’s method
of determining the solar-motion in space is founded on the assump-
tion that the true proper motions of the stars vanish in the
mean, and that recent investigations have cast doubt upon that
hypothesis, Stumpe returned again to the question of so deducing
our path in space that the possibility of stellar proper motions
being subject to some general trend—as for example in the plane
of the Milky Way—shall be considered.® Stumpe consequently,
having regard to Schonfeld’s assumption that the stars in general
1The Observatory, Vol. x1x., pp. 45-49, 1896. ? Ibid., p. March 1896.
3 Cited in Miss Clerke’s ‘“‘ System of the Stars,” p. 328.
* Ueber den Einfluss der Sternvertheilung auf die Bestimmung des
Sonnenapex nach der Bessel’schen Methode.—Astr. Nach. Bd. cxt., pp.
1-18, 1896.
5 Erwiderung auf Herrn Anding’s Aufsatz.—Astr. Nach. Bd. cxt., pp.
141 —- 144.
6 Beitrage zur Bestimmung des Sonnen-Apex.—Astr. Nach., Bd. cxt.,
pp. 177 - 192, 1896. A very imperfect account may also be found in The
Observatory, Vol. x1x., p. 411, November 1896.
196 G. H. KNIBBS.
move in excentric paths about the centre of the galaxy, introduced
into his equations terms representing the galactocentric codrdinates
of the stars’ positions, and investigated the evidence for such
motion.
Dividing the proper motions of 996 available stars into three
groups according to their quantity, and into three classes accord-
ing to the magnitudes of the stars—as shewn hereunder—the
following results were obtained :—
Group. P.M. We otoe SR oAS D. Mean P.M. Mean Mag.
I. 016-032 551 2844 4415 0-229 6:34
II. 0:32-0:64 339 275:7 41:9 0:433 6-70
Ill. 0:64-1:28 106 287-7 33:1 0-850 6-38
Class. Magnitude. ei R.A. D. Mean P.M. Mean Mag.
1 76-< 284 2867 46:9 0-384 8-18
9. 56-75 473 290-7 37:5 0:°357 6-63
3. |- -— 55 - 938° 963-8 Sila) aan 412
These should give consistent results, if stellar distance be a
function of the proper motion in the first series, or a function of
the magnitude in the second series.
Rearranging the stars in three divisions (a), (6), (c) by applying
Gyldén’s hypothesis as to parallax, previously referred to(see 1894),
the results then become :—
Parallax. ~ “2027 “SAS D. Mean P.M. Mean Mag.
Division.
(a) 02-04 404 287-4 +450 0°233 7-12
(b) 04 06 348 282-2 43:5 -387 6-82
(ec) 206-12. 243 2802 3235 | uaa 4:89
These all shew a progression of the values for the apex-point,
standing out the more clearly when stars of equal P.M. are classed
according to brightness, or when stars of equal brightness are
classed according to their P.M. Thus for example, the number
also being thereby reduced as shewn, the results become—
Class. Magnitude. §7.2' R.A. D. Pe ine, Oe Leama
1 762 2 139 305:3 560 0-237 817 0-026
9 56-75 265 28183. 383 0-231 658 034
9 1+ ~55 146 2762 30:9 0-919 | 4-/ Gnu
that is to say the progression referred to is still more conspicuous.
THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 197
The following comparison between the parallax and magnitudes
according to different estimates, is given, viz.,
Magnitude 1 2 3 4. 4) 6 7 8 9
Struve 1:00 1°80 2°76 3°91 5:45 7:73 11°55 1740 —
Ristenpart 1:00 1:53 2:34 3:58 5:47 8°34 12°69 19-23 28-97
Gyldén OO E-ol 177 8247 “solo 08 i-ol 11:21 16:99
Using Gyldén’s hypothesis, and accepting Houzeau’s values,
R.A. 282°°25, I. = 62-°5, for the longitude of the ascending node,
and inclination of the plane of the visible galaxy, the following
results were obtained—
Parallax. R.A. D.
0-02-04 292°2 +452°3
04--06 285°6 47°6
06—'12 280°5 33°7
These still shew the progression referred to, that is to say the
hypothesis of motion in the plane of the Milky-Way leads to no
better result. Treating again a limited number of stars of classes
1, 2 and 3, it was found that the results were —
Class. Magnitude. $2.2 R.A. D. Mean P.M. Mean Mag.
i 89 281'1 +22°9 0:240 8-13
meeesG 75 199 274-8 13-0 230 6-54
ek 55 106 272-4. 9-4 219 4:10
Finally, taking all stars of Groups I. and II., according to
whether the angle of intersection of the P.M. with the meridians
of the solar apex be less or greater 90°, the results become—
Group, —32 R.A. D. Mean P.M. Mean Mag.
Pe 394 2753 418-8 0-230 6-24
se 759 1143 499 6-70
Bea his6) eag7egu 145-8 3.99 661
II. 96 888 56-2 443 6-71
* It may be incidentally remarked that the mean result of these 394
stars weighted merely as the number of stars is
R.A. = 275°°6, D. = +14°°3
which is almost identical with Group II. below, viz.,
R.A. = 275°9, D.= + 14:3.
198 G. H. KNIBBS.
The middle value of the first two, viz.,
R.A. = 275°5, D. = + 14°°0
is exactly the mean between Kobold’s value — 3°, and Ludwig
Struve’s + 31° according to Airy’s or Argelander’s method, and is
moreover the most probable result.
(109) Kobold, 1896 (July )—Among the proper motions of 499
southern stars, communicated to Kobold by Auwers, the uncer-
tainty of the directions of 188 were within the previously indicated
limits.'. These gave for the sun’s apex at 1880:0—
R.A. =276: 0) Di ea
Treating these in the same way as the previous stars, by dividing
the celestial sphere into equal areas, the result was
JWwey SAOE 3 D5 = Ol
and combining these with previous results from Bradley’s stars.
this result became
R.A. = 266°°5,- D. = —3°°1.
(110) Newcomb, 2896 (Dec./—In a paper ‘On the solar motion
as a gauge of stellar distance,” Newcomb concluded from a discuss-
ion on the relation between magnitude and proper motion, that
the parallactic-displacement effect of the solar motion diminishes
less rapidly with stars of fainter magnitude than has been
supposed.’ His result shews solar motion toward a point R.A. =
297°, the quantity 0-’046 per annum from the mean distance of
stars of 9th magnitude. lf we accept for the parallax the value
0-106 (2-3, see Kapteyn (122) hereinafter, this will make the
velocity 28:9 miles per second.
(111) Kobold, 1897 (April)—In April 1897 Kobold discussed
the proper motions of 523 southern stars,* by way of extending
his 1894 investigation previously referred to. These proper
1 Notiz betreffend die Bestimmung des Poles des parallaktischen
Aequators.—Astr. Nach., Bd. cxul., pp. 421 - 422, 1896.
2 Astr. Journ., Vol. xvir., (No. 390) pp. 42-44, 1896. See also The:
Observatory, Vol. xx., pp. 214-215, May 1897. % Loc. cit., p. 44.
* Untersuchung der Higenbewegung von 523 siidlichen Sternen.—Astr.
Nach. Bd. cxuiv., pp. 33 — 58, 1897.
= 7 La
~
r
bi a
THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 199
motions were determined from observations, differently weighted,
at five epochs, the series being,—
I. Lacaille, Bradley: IJ. Piazzi: III. Johnson St. H., Cape
1840, Taylor, Henderson, Pond: IV. Cape 1880, Cordova 1875,
Melbourne (i.) and (ii.), Greenwich: V. Recent observations at
the Cape and Cordova. The catalogue gives the places for 1850-0.
The celestial surface was divided by 2-hour circles, and by parallels
of declination into 122 equal areas, and the general treatment
was similar to that in the 1894 treatise. 213 poles whose un-
certainty lay within the previously indicated limits gave for the
pole of the parallactic equator the codrdinates—
(213 stars) R.A. = 274°4, D.= +0°4
Combining this catalogue with the previous one, thus bringing
the total number of stars employed up to 1579, the result became
(1579 stars) ReA — 268-3, D.= = 2°99
Again, on dividing the whole sphere in 122 equal trapeziums,
(2 calottes at the poles), the result obtained was
BoA — 260027, ): — 0-02
the close agreement of both results shewing that the unequal
division of the celestial sphere by the stars employed, had not
materially influenced the result. Kobold also, employing the list
of 11 stars referred to previously, viz., in his 1894 treatise, whose
parallaxes and motions in the line of sight have been determined,
found that they pointed to the result
R.A. =240°1, D.= +3-°7, V. = 2°53 Ger. miles per sec.
Derived from such limited data, this result could not of course be
regarded as having much weight, but the close agreement with
the general result is worthy of remark. The epoch for all the
values is 1810-0.
(112) Kobold, 1897 (April).—In a contribution concerning the
value of the precession-constant,' Kobold assigned, for the epoch
1810-0, as approximate values of the parallactic pole R.A. 270°,
* Ein Beitrag 2ur Kenntniss der Praecessionsconstante.—Astr. Nach.,
Bd. cxtiv., pp. 57-60, 1897.
—
D. 0°, and obtains from 115 stars of proper motion at least 0-4
R.A. = 266°, Di S07e
The paper is important as bearing on the relation of the determin-
200 G. H. KNIBBS.
ation of the precession-constant to the general discussion of proper
motions.
(113) Kapteyn, 1897 (May )—Kapteyn continued his discussion
of the velocities of stars in space, reviewing the possibility of some
general trend in the motus peculiares of the stars.’ His results
are more fully referred to hereinafter. See 1898.
(114) Kobold, 1897 (July)—In continuation of his previous
investigations, Kobold? discussed in July 1897, the distribution of
the motus peculiares of the stars upon the assumption of two apices
for the solar motion, viz.
(a) R.A. =268°25, D.= +31°°0, Argelancerian solution
(d) 268°°25, — 3°°0, Besselian solution
and further for the apex
(c) RAS — 268-25, 2D:
Putting
+10°°5
Il
M =As cos (f - w); N =As sin (¢ — y)
in which As, ¢, and y are respectively the observed proper motion,
its direction, and y the direction from the antiapex; and also q to
denote the solar motion, and Ap the correction to the precession
constant, Kobold found for these points the following results, viz.:
Argelanderian Point. Besselian Point. Point c.
Ap -0:0289 — 0-0277
Mean N~ + 0:0934 + 0:0847
No. of + Ns 505 404 456
No. of — Ns 388 499 447
He further calculated, from the equation for M, the values of m/p,
or one of the angular components of the motus peculiaris of each
star, drawn perpendicular to the great circle from the antiapex.
The distribution of the errors shewed that if, in the determination
+ Verdeeling der kosmische snelheden.—Verslagen der Afd. Natuurk.
Dl. 6, 29 Mei, ’97 - 23 Apr. 798, pp. 51 — 60.
* Ueber die Vertheilung der motus peculiares der Sterne.—Astr. Nach.,
Bd. cxuiv., pp. 289-300, 1897.
THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 201
of the direction of the sun’s motion, we rigidly adhere to the con-
dition that the sum of the squares of the errors shall be a minimum,
we have to take for granted that among the stars, the majority
possesses a motion opposed to the solar motion, which, in the
observed motions, is combined with the parallactic. There is a
considerable number of stars whose motion, while similarly directed
to that of the sun, is conspicuously greater in amount. These
however, are not arbitrarily distributed. Ifa plane be drawn
through the axis of the point (6) and perpendicular to the plane of
the Milky-Way, one of the two hemispheres so formed is rich in
stars of this character, while the other is poor. Evidently this is
a peculiarity demanding further investigation.
(115) Kapteyn, 1897 (Oct.)—In Oct. 1897 Kapteyn discussed
the velocity of the solar motion, and that of stellar motions, in
space. The results will be found hereinafter: see 1898.
(116) Newcomb, 1897.—Newcomb’ in his American Ephemeris
paper on the precessional constant, stated that Struve’s result
corrected to the recent fundamental positions, becomes instead of
R.A. =273°4, D,= 4+ 27°3,
273°4 34:9,
Referring to Boss’ general result previously quoted, and regarding
Tiines's Ay? Oy. SIU) es te xcs)
as the most probable value of the apex of the solar motion
deduced from Stumpe’s data, he concluded that the direction which
most probably represented the actual solar motion was
R.A. =277°5, D.= +38°0.
In section xx., the elimination of the parallactic motion from the
precession of each star is discussed, the distance (?) factors to
produce uniformity in the mean result being related to the mag-
nitudes. These are given in the next reference herein to
Newcomb’s work.
* De snelheid, waarmede het zonnestelsel zich verplaatst in de ruimte,
en de gemiddele parallax der sterren van verschillende grootte.—Vers-
lagen der Afdeeling Natuurk., Dl. 6, 1897-8, pp. 238 — 244.
? Astronomical papers prepared for the use of the American Ephemeris
and Nautical Almanac, Vol. vi1., Part i., The Precessional Constant.—
Washington, 1897, pp. 1-76.
202 G. H. KNIBBS.
(117) Mewcomb, 1897 ( June)—The question of the relation of
distance to magnitude, using the solar motion as a gauge, is further
examined by Newcomb in his paper on the precessional constant
in No. 405 of the Astronomical Journal.’ His result, taking
unity for the distance of fifth magnitude stars, the factors to make
the parallactic motion uniform were found to be?
Mag. 1-2 3 4 5 6 (sf
Factor 0:4 0-6 0:8 1:0 1:2 1-4
As stated in the preceding article Newcomb adopted 184 hrs, as
the R.A. of the solar apex.’
It is pointed out in a later paper by Boss that the coordinates
deduced by Newcomb for the components of the solar motion give*
R.A. =274°2, D.=+31°2
Of these codrdinates however, Newcomb says :—‘“‘it must be
remembered that they are derived from stars of small proper
motion, which are not the best adapted to the special determination
of the solar motion.’”
(118) Boss, 1897 (Aug.)—In discussing Newcomb’s value for
the precessional constant,° Boss pointed out that his, Newcomh’s,
result for the codrdinates of the solar motion determined the
direction just given. This position however, he remarks, is at.
variance with that deduced from more elaborate discussions.’
(119) D’Auria, 1897 (Oct.)—D’Auria stated that an easy solu-
tion of the problem of stellar dynamics can be reached, provided
the interstellar aether be assumed to be ponderable.2 The whole .
article proposes to demonstrate that the revolution of the stars
about the ‘centre of the universe,” conceived to be finite, takes
place in the same time, viz., a little over 14 millions years. This
period he represents by the equation
1 A new determination of the precessional motion.—Astr. Journ. Vol.
xvir., (No. 405) pp. 161-167, 1897. ? Loc. cit., p. 168. % Loc. cit., p. 164.
* See Boss 1897 hereinafter. * Loc. cit., p. 163.
6 Note on Professor Newcomb’s determination of the Constant of Pre-
cession and on the Paris Conference of 1896. —Astr Journ. Vol. XvIII.,
(No. 410) pp. 9-12. 7 Loe. cit., p. 10.
8 Stellar Dynamics.—Journ. Franklin Inst., Vol. cxuiv., pp. 306 — 312,
1897.
THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 203
T= 7 /{(Rad. Earth x Density Earth)/
(Accel. Gravity x Density Aether) }
(120) Bakhuyzen, 1897 ( Dec. )—The question of the distribution
of stars in space, is a fundamentally important question in complete
methods of determining the solar motion: recognising this, Van de
Sande Bakhuyzen' in 1898 undertook the investigation of the’
number of proper motions to be expected within definite limits,
assuming any definite elements for the sun’s motion, He adopted
Ludwig Struve’s values for the year 1875, viz.,
eas — 2165, Dis os.
His fundamental hypotheses are (a) that the motus peculiares
of the stars vary between very wide limits, and spatially are dis-
tributed accidentally, 2.¢., both in respect of quantity and direction:
(6) that the proportion of stars with motus peculiares lying between
any definite limits, and included between the surfaces of concentric
spheres, is independent of their radii: and (c) that the mean
velocity in such a case is also independent of the radii. 2,683.
stars were found to be distributed substantially as required by the
hypothesis.
(121) Boss, 1898 (Jan.)—Boss’—in a further discussion on
Newcomb’s value for the precessional constant, roughly revising
Ristenpart’s equations, allowing for Becker’s personal equation
for star magnitude, adjusting to the system of the principal stars
of the American Ephemeris, and so combining the equations that
the solar-apex codrdinates shall depend upon 454 stars having
apparent proper motion greater than 0°’1, while the correction to
the Struve-Peters ~ shall be derived from the remaining 4,565
stars—found for the apex of solar motion, the value
R.A. =295°4, D.= +39°°0
1 Opmerkingen over de verdeeling der sterren in de ruimte.—Verslagen
d. Afd. Natuurk. D1 6, 1897-8, pp. 394-404. See also Astr. Nach., Bd.
CXLVI, pp. 209-220, 1898, in which to the title is added, “nach der
Grosse der Higenbewegungen.”
2 The Paris Conference and the precessional motion.—Astr. Journ., Vol..
xvit., (No. 423) pp. 118-118, 1898. % Loe. cit., p. 117.
204 G. H. KNIBBS.
(122) Kapteyn, 1898 (April)—In April 1898 Kapteyn repub-
lished a number of his smaller papers previously referred to,
contributed to the Roya] Academy of Sciences in Amsterdam,
concerning the velocity of the solar and stellar motions in space,
in a more developed form in the Astronomische Nachrichten.1
This last treatise was divided into four heads :—
(a) The mean velocity of the stars compared with the velocity
in space of the solar-system.
(6) The velocity of the solar-system in space.
(c) The mean velocity of stars of different magnitudes.
(d) The influence of an error in the assumed constant of pre-
cession.
In (a) Kapteyn developed the fundamental equations of his
investigation, and discussed the definitions and assumptions,
involved in their application. He criticised the legitimacy of
Ristenpart’s deduction as to variation of velocity with increase of
distance from the sun. Accepting for the position of the apex
of solar motion the values for 1875
R.A. = 276°, D.= + 34°
and dividing the stars according to their photometric magnitude,
and also according to their spectral type, for the determination of
which Draper’s catalogue was used, he obtained the following
results :—
No. of Stars. Phot. Mag. Spectr. type. [n]/V
60 O3-5 II. Te
72\285 Q0-3°5 I. and unknown | 1:35
153 Bis = 15 10 1:69]
335 4-6 — 5-5 II. 2-04
488 Te) (es Il. 1:30
162 3-—4°5 I. and unknown 1°36
254 6°6 — 7:5 all 1°95
356 4°6-5:°5 I. and unknown’ 1°41
705 5:6—6°5 I. and unknown 1:48
Total 2,585 Mean 1°51
1 Die mittlere Geschwindigkeit der Sterne, die Quantitit der Sonnen-
bewegung und die mittlere Parallaxe der Sterne von verschiedener Grosse.
—Astr. Nach., Bd. cxtv1., pp. 97 - 114, 1898.
ahs |
> ay
THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 205
[m] denoting the arithmetical mean of the components of the star’s
absolute velocities, taken at right angles to the line of sight, and
V the absolute velocity of the sun’s motion in space; so that [n]/V
denotes the ratio of the former to the latter. Kapteyn concluded
that no change of velocity with increase of distance from the sun
is indicated by this result. The stars were next divided into two -
series, all the stars of spectral type II. being put into one, and
the remaining ones into the other. These two series were again
subdivided into ten groups, containing in each group an equal
number, in the following manner, viz:—The stars were divided into
sub-groups according to the value of the angle formed between the
direction of the stars “total proper motion” and the great circle
through the antiapex, these angles being 0° to + 9°, + 10° to + 19°
and so on, closing with + 170° to + 180°. These greater groups
(1) contained the series of stars of the least proper motion through-
out the sub-groups, the second group (2) those of the next greater
value, and so on to the last, 2.e., (10), which contains the stars of
greatest proper motion. The result was as follows :—
Spectral Type IT. Other Stars.
Group. Stars. [n]/V Bees [2]/V
1 103 LeSa 139 1:58
2 103 1:30 140 1:38
3 104 1:59 139 ial:
4 103 1°50 139 esi
5 103 1:36 139 1°41
6 103 1°44 140 1°52
7 103 1°52 139 1:44
8 Os 1:62 140 1-40
9 103 1:69 139 1°43
10 105 155 140 1:40
Total 1,033 1:494 1,394 1-429
This shews no distinct evidence of a progression of the ratio,
with magnitude of proper motion ; and the inclusion of other stars
not embraced in the above result did not vary this result. The
finally deduced motions were
fn]=1-46 V Mean velocity perpendicular to line of sight.
[s ]=1-86 V Mean actual linear velocity.
[¢ ]|=0-93 V Mean velocity (considered as positive) in lineof sight.
206 G. H. KNIBBS.
In (6), Kapteyn attempted to determine the value of the unit
V: using the 51 stars of Kempf’s 1892 determination and the
value above mentioned for the direction of the apex, he obtained
instead of Kempf’s result previously quoted,
V=12°:3 + 3:0 kilometres per second:
| varying the weights however, and solving by the method of least
squares, this was altered to .
V=10-7 + 3:1 kilometres per second.
After a further discussion, as to the inclusion and treatment of
certain star-groups, and also upon the weight of the results,
Kapteyn submitted as the most probable values—
Solar velocity V=16-7 kilometres per second= 3:53 E annually
Meanstellar vel. [s]= 31:1 m a == 0) ((e Hea
E denoting the mean distance from the sun from the earth.
With respect to (c), Kapteyn’s investigation appeared to shew
that the average parallax (7) of a star of the photometric magni-
tude (m) can be expressed by the equation—
in = Bae
and if k be taken as equal to 1/2, or ‘7071, then z, will have the
following numerical values, viz., ;
For spectral type I. 7,=0°063
bs yo LS Oma
Or for all stars 5 0-106.
In regard to (d) Kapteyn concluded that any error resulting
from defect in the precession constant will not prejudice the
results obtained more than about two per cent.
(123) Mewcomb, 1899 (March )—Newcomb further examined
the question of the quantity and direction of the solar motion, in
the March number of the Astronomical Journal for 1899." In the
first part of his paper he considered “the absolute speed of the
solar motion derived from the observed parallax of stars.” Using
for the codrdinates of the solar apex the values
1 Some points relating to the Solar motion and the mean parallax of
stars of different orders of magnitude.—Astr. Journ., Vol. xx., (No. 457)
pp. 1 - 6, 1899.
THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 207
R.A. = 277°5, D.= +38°0
and employing the proper motions of 72 stars of known parallaxes,
he obtained by one method, assigning different weights to the
different stars
V=5°85 E.
V denoting the velocity per annum, and E the mean radius of the
earth’s orbit. Assuming that the result is influenced overmuch
by stars of large parallax, he made a second calculation, obtaining
the result
Wane 1D),
A third computation, in which three stars, giving very great
values for V, were excluded, reduced this however to
V=6-4 E, say 30 kilometres per second.
Again taking the mean result of 22 bright stars it was found
that
V=3°'5 E=16'5 kilometres per second ;
which agrees with Kapteyn’s conclusions from motions in the line
of sight.
Sixteen stars whose annual motion exceeded 2°"6, and Arcturus,
were used to determine the solar motion, giving }
R.A. =276°3, D= + 41:3, R”=3°"15
R’ being the parallactic motion in terms of the mean distance of
the group. |
The second part of the paper is on “The most likely position
of the Solar Apex.” Employing the method given in his .Astro-
nomical Papers, Vol. vi11., part 1, Newcomb deduced the apex of
solar motion as follows :—
Stars of small proper motion.
Mag. ‘ae Weight. R.A. 1D, RK’
1—2°9 64 ik 263°°1 31°7 6:59
3°0 —3°9 a5 2 262°7 26°8 561
4:0 —4:9 327 5 266°5 31-8 3°47
TO = 59 731 11 268°5 32:0 3°14
6:0 —6°9 1034 16 277-4 30°6 2°81
70 236 4 278°2 33°6 2°86
Total 2527 Mean 272°5 3))083
i
bate |
- 2
208 G. H. KNIBBS.
Stars of large proper motion.
Num Weight, R.A. Dp. R”
Stars.
All magnitudes 644 10 276°°9 31°4 ?
R” here denotes centennial? parallactic motion, at the mean
distance of the group.
In these six results, if we accept Kapteyn’s parallax-magnitude
theory, see (122) above, adopt the constant 0-”106, and also the
mean magnitudes 2, 34, 44, 54, 64, 74, which are probably suffici-
ently near the actual means,—not given by Newcomb—the
resulting velocities will be respectively 3:6, 5:2, 4:6, 5:9, 7:7, 10-7,
miles per second.
Pointing out that Stumpe’s mean positions, weighted according
to the number of stars, when classed by proper motions, and by
magnitudes were respectively
R.A. = 281°°8, D.= +40°°7
283°1 38°7
and that Boss’ declination would, by correction to the new standard
be D.= +42°°9 instead of 44°1, Newcomb gives the oe
table of results :— ;
Authority. No. of ~~ eke D.
Newcomb from Bradley’s stars, small P.M. 2,527 272°5 31°3
RA 7 large P.M. 644 2769 31:4
Stumpe, mean two preceding results 995 282°4 39°7
Boss, stars of Albany Zone 279 = 283°3 42:9
from which he concludes that the most probable position is |
R.A.=277°5, D.—-+-35°0, V.—2 oon:
V denoting the velocity per annum, and E the mean radius of the
earth’s orbit.
The third and fourth parts of the paper are respectively the
‘“ Parallactic motion of the fainter stars”—giving 0°’0039 for
“The mean parallax of the Vogel
stars.” The paper closes with the fifth part, “Summary of Con-
clusions.” Kapteyn’s speed of V = 3:5 E, and parallax formula |
T. =k", with the constants previously given, are, Newcomb
THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. = 209
thinks, probably near the truth: the latter at least as far as the
ninth magnitude.
(124) Kobold, 1899 (Sept.)—In 1899 Kobold returned to the
problem of determining the solar motion by the Besselian method,’
discussing very fully the distribution over the surface of the
celestial sphere of the differences between the purely parallactic
motion, and the observed motion of the star, (#—y). Using a
still larger number of stars, and as before dividing them into
classes according to the magnitude of their proper motions, he
obtained the following results :—
Proper Motion. Most R.A. D. dp
>1°6 1 Daley RO OORT
1‘6 to 0°8 93. 267°5 Too COMLDE
0-8 ,, 0-4 85 267°3 =1 2 0000) ree
0-4 ,, 0-2 942 269-7 Sie = 007 at
G2 0-1 2 549 270-1 40:1 + -0034
=> O01 Total905 269-6 0-45 E0034
Again, taking all stars with proper motions ranging from 0°02
to 0°"1, and dividing them into two series, the results were
Proper Motion. 9.2 R.A. D. dp
0-1 to 0:05 583 267°6 — 3-9 + 0:0045
0-05 ,, 0:02 774 270°8 — 3°0 — 0:0048 | Epoch
ue: 3 paLeeaes 1810-0
0-1 to 0-02 Total 1357 269°6 -~ 3°3 — 0:0031
These gave for the mean result from a total of 2,262 stars
Proper Motion. %).,% R.A. D. dp Epoch
> 0:02 2,262 269°6 —2°3 — 0002 1810-0
Kobold pointed out that the mean error of the observed direc-
tions is not greater for stars of small than for those of Jarge proper
motion, a point which, he affirms, demands peculiar attention. .
The effect of an error in the precession-constant was shewn to be
negligible, and also that one must conclude either that the influence
of the motus peculiares becomes less as the proper motions become
* Die Constante der Praecession und die Bewegung des Sonnensystems
untersucht auf Grundlage der Methode von Bessel.—Astr. Nach., Bd. ct.,.
pp. 257 — 296, 1899.
N—Nov. 7, 1900.
210 | G. H. KNIBBS.
smaller, or that the error found is a systematic and not an acci-
dental error of the proper motions, as later on he demonstrates to
be the case. With a view to deciding this question, the 905 stars
of greater proper motion were divided into two series; the division .
and results being as follows :—
Noof = RA, D. dp
Bradley's 747 268°1 —0°8 +0:"0013 Epoch
Southern 158 2710 42:3 - 0135 1810-0
A further division was made, with the following result :—
No. of 1 Aa eee dp
Stars.
Bradley’s, north of + 23-2 decl. 309 269°5 +1-2 +0:0058
5 +23°2 to —-23°2 decl. 416 2657 -15 + -0122
Southern stars Soe .. 158° 271°0 42:5 "= sOaiae
Epoch 1810-0
These deductions for the direction of the solar motion are practically
identical, or at least shew no systematic difference.
Continuing the analysis, the surface of the sphere was divided
into equal areas by hour-circle quadrants, and as before by parallels
of declination (0°, 11°°3, 23°2, 36°2, 51°9 and 79°°6, referred to in
the 1897 paper). It was shewn that the solution by the method
of least squares led to the values
R.A. = 269°8, D.= +16°5, dp —0-"0381
dp denoting a correction to the precession-constant, that is, it led
to a result approximating to the position of the apex obtained
with the usual assumptions ; and, in reference to the precession-
constant, one in agreement with the recent investigations of various
authors who have followed Airy’s method. The strict solution
gave however |
R.A. =270°6, D.= +071, dp'=— 00028
a solution substantially identical with that previously obtained
from the 905 stars. Kobold argued that the comparison of these
results significantly shews that we have not to do with mere
accidental errors, but with systematically occurring differences of
motion, thus with the uniformly acting motus parallacticus.
THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. ZA
A very complete discussion, and a further exhaustive analysis,
and solution that apparently leaves nothing to be desired, furnishes
as the best value of the apex of solar motion, determined by the
Besselian method,
R.A. = 270°4, D. = —0°2, dp= - 0°"0013, Epoch 1810-0
a value which is independent of all assumptions as to stellar
distances, and one from which, as far as possible, the systematic
character of the motus peculiares of the stars has been eliminated.
It ought to be said that it is quite impossible in the compass of a
necessarily short reference to give anything like an adequate pre-
sentation of the comprehensive and masterly way in which the
question has been discussed by Kobold.
(125) Backhouse, 1599 ( Nov.)—Referring to Newcomb’s deter-
mination of solar motion, Backhouse remarked that the point
regarded as fixed, and to which the motion is referred should be
defined."
(125a) Veenstra, 1899 ( Nov. )—Since going to press, two papers
on the solar motion are to hand in the translated Proceedings of
Science Section of the Royal Academy of Amsterdam, Vol. 11.,
published July 1900. The first is by Veenstra.* Using an
unpublished catalogue, prepared by Kapteyn, of the Bradley stars,
and applying systematic corrections, Veenstra obtains the follow-
ing results, in which the first results are from proper motions less
than 0”3; and the last one is from 151 stars of proper motion
greater than that amount.
Spectral Type. 32.0 R.A. D.
I. 965% 268°3 +36°7
II. JO5) 2724 3G
FL 710% 273°5 33°9
LY, 710% 270-6 34:3 Epoch 1900?
and Il. 675! 269°5 34°3
J.and II. 1675% 274-2 30°1
PML =@s ol, 262-4 42°2
1The solar motion.—The Observatory, Vol. xx1I., pp. 395-6, 1899.
2 On the systematic corrections of the proper motions of the stars con-
tained in the Auwers-Bradley catalogue, and the coordinates of the solar
motion in space.—Translated Proc. Roy. Acad., Amsterdam, Vol. 11., pp.
262 — 267, 1900.
’ 7 i.
. $.
.
In these, the former of each pair is from proper motion in declin-
212 G. H. KNIBBS.
ation alone, the latter from the proper motions in declination and
right ascension. These results have not been plotted on the
illustrative figures, viz. 1 and 1 (a).
(126) Mewcomb, 1899 (Dec.)—Newcomb replied that the
definition is tedious, but the point referred to by Backhouse and
its definition is well understood.
1264) Kapteyn, 1900 (Jan. )—The second paper is by Kapteyn,
discussing critically the solutions by Airy, Argelander, and Kobold,
and shewing the equations of each type of solution or modification
thereof.” Kapteyn clearly expounds the hypotheses on which
these proceed, and shews how far the solutions are in agreement
therewith. His conclusion is that what must perhaps more than
anything else, hinder us from accepting the methods so far used
for the derivation of the solar motion is, that quantities treated
as small are in reality noé so.
(127) Yowell, 1900 (March )—Yowell® taking 86 fundamental
stars from the Berliner Jahrbuch, whose proper motions were
greater than 0-2 and less than 0°’5 per annum, found that
R.A. =284°1, D. = +34°1
He stated that if, employing Kobold’s method, he had adopted as
a first approximation, the values 270° and 0°, he would have
obtained a very small correction, less than 01 each way, and
similarly if he had adopted 284° and 34°. He concluded that
Kobold’s method gives simply small corrections to any assumed
position for the apex, and leaves its real position indeterminate.
(128) Kobold, 1900 (April)—Replying to Yowell’s assertion
that Kobold’s method of indirect solution will furnish only small
corrections whatever the assumed place of the solar motion, he,
1 Tbid., p. 443.
2? The determination of the apex of the solar motion.—Translated Proc.
Roy. Acad. Amsterdam, Vol. 11., pp. 353 - 374.
3 Note on a new method of determining the solar-apex.—Astr. Journ.,
V olxx,, No. 479; p: 187.
THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 213
Kobold, furnishes an example with 43 stars of class II.1 These
gave by direct solution the result
R.A. = 264°:3, D. = — 3°:5
Starting with R.A. = 270° D.= +30° as assumed values, the first
approximation led to
Ros, — 20K: by Dee Ie 2
Again proceeding with R.A.= 270° and D. = +11°2 as the assumed
values, the result for second approximation was
eA — 200: b Dees il
from which Kobold concluded that doubtless thedifferential formula
leads finally to the same point as is obtained by the direct solution.
Whatever the explanation of the peculiar result obtained by
Yowell, the one which he offers is certainly not correct.
ADDITIONAL MEMOIRS, ETC.
The following memoirs and results were overlooked when com-
piling, in proper historical sequence, the work of the various
investigators. They have advisedly been numbered so as to fall
in their proper place according to the general plan. It has not,
however, been possible to interpolate them. In the tabulated
results hereinafter given, each appears in its proper place.
(44) Jacques Cassini, 1738.—On the 12th November, 1738,
J. Cassini submitted a memoir to the French Academy of Sciences,
on the variations observed in the situation and motion of several
fixed stars,” including those mentioned by Halley.
(104) Bailly, J. S., 1775.—In his history of modern astronomy
Bailly, like Michell, also considered the question of the possibility
of solar motion.’
(64a) Gyldén, 1871.—In Oct. 1871, Gyldén determined the
right ascension of the direction of solar motion from four groups
* Bemerkungen zu dem Artikel: Note onanew method of determining
the solar apex, by EH. I. Yowell, in Astr. Journ. Nr. 479. Astr. Nach.,
Bd. cuit., pp. 279 — 280.
? Histoire de l’Acad. roy. des Sciences, Paris 1788, p. 381.
3 Histoire de l’Astronomie moderne, Paris 1775 — 1783, t. 11., p. 662 et seq.
214 G. H. enreeen
of stars,’ the results being as follows :—
Group (a) (b) (c) (ad) Mean
R.A. = 268°4 270°9 270"9 28679 9772
Epoch 1800?
(704) Gyldén, 1877.—In his ‘Elements of Astronomy,’ Gyldén
gives for the R.A. of the direction of the sun’s motion.
R.A. =260°5. Epoch 1800.
(844) Ubaghs, 1887.—In February 1887 Ubaghs discussed
more fully the velocity of the solar motion. From a group of 34
near stars the result was practically zero, while from a larger
group of 163 it amounted only to 0-05 of the radius of the
terrestrial orbit, 2.¢e., say 0°15 miles per second.’
(85a) Hastman, 15S89.—The general trend of the investigation
of the solar motion was the subject of a presidential address by
Eastman to the Philosophical Society of Washington in December
1889.4 He discusses somewhat fully the intrinsic difficulties of
the problem, gives a sketch of the history of the inquiry, and a
list of some of the results of previous investigators. Using the
known parallaxes of 46 stars, arranging them in groups of nine
according to the magnitudes of their proper motions, he obtained
the following results :—
No.of Mean Mag. Mean P.M. Parallax.
9
5°57 4°93 0-732
9 5°59 2°33 0:20
9 337 1-04 0:20
9 2°36 38 0:16
10 2°84 ‘06 0-13
from which, so far as the evidence goes, it appears that the fainter,
rather than the brighter stars are nearest our system! This
1 Antydningar om lagbundenhet i stjernornas rorelser.—Oefversigt kon.
Vetens. Akad. Forhandl., 1871. Arg. xxvill., pp. 947 — 960.
*Grundlehren der Astronomie, Leipzig, 1877, p. 388. Quoted by
Eastman, see (854).
* Détermination de la direction et de la vitesse du translation du
systéme solaire dans l’espace.—Bull. Acad. Roy. Belg. 3me sér. t. XII1.,
pp. 66 —- 68, 1887.
* Solar and stellar proper motions.—Bull. Phil. Soc., Washington, ,
Vol. xt., pp. 148 —171, 1888 — 1891.
THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 215
sufficiently shews how precarious are the deductions of distance
from magnitude.
(944) Bakhuyzen, 1892.—In December 1892 Bakhuyzen
deduced the direction of the solar motion from all stars in the
Auwers-Bradley catalogue within 50° of the pole of the Milky
Way, for the plane of which Houzeau’s value was accepted.! The
results for the epoch 1810 ? were
ee — 204° 6) I AY — 260 2) WD od
From the whole of the proper motions
| LES Vee PADS eee AD Bee Ser
Quoting L. Struve’s results, Bakhuyzen gives finally
RA. 266° 7; Di= 4310.
1034) Pannekoek, 1895.—In the June number of Nature, 1895,
a discussion of the motion of the solar system by Pannekoek is
referred to.” The deduction is made from stars of declination
between 0° and 20°, divided into two groups according to their
spectral type, and into sub-groups according to the magnitude of
their proper motions. The results are as follows :—
Spectral Type I.
eub-froup. %. PINE R.A. D.
rr 203 "02 322°°8 +14°:7
ia 93 06 304°7 12-1
re 58 abe 275°'8 ie kccs:
IV. 48 “34 251-6 33°0
Spectral Type II.
i CE ‘02 274°6 — 2°6
i. 52 ‘06 280-1 +35°8
LEE 65 al 268°6 31:4
The spectra were from the Potsdam observations.
(1054) Tasserand, 1895 (Sept. )—In the Bulletin Astronomique
of September 1895, Tisserand discusses the determination of the
* De vraag of de bewegung van het zonnestelsel ten opzichte van de
sterren binnen den melkweg dezelfde is als die voor de sterren daarbuiten.
—Versl. d. Afd. Natuurk., 1892-3, pp. 92-93.
* Nature, Vol. wir., 1895, p. 135.
216 G. H. KNIBBS.
proper motion of the sun from that of the stars, and shews that
the evidence of its reality is very cogent.’
(129) Defects in Bibliography of subject.—Although no known
accessible source of information has been neglected, it has not
been possible to make the bibliographical record here attempted
—extensive as it is—complete. It is very likely that some dis-
cussions of the precessional constant, containing investigations of
the solar motion, may have been overlooked, despite the care taken
in regard thereto. As an exhaustive determination of this con-
stant, demands the eliminination of the motus parallacticus from
the proper motion of each star, so that the motus peculiares, aftect-
ing as they do the value of the constant, may be determined in
accordance with the law of probability, particular attention has
been paid to all memoirs treating of precession. In some instances
I have been unable, however, to obtain copies of the memoir, ¢.g.
Dreyer’s, ‘‘New determination of the constant of precession.””
Radau’s® and Bakhuyzen’s* articles in the Bulletin Astronomique
which also touch on the solar motion, I have likewise failed to
obtain. In cases where there was great doubt as to how and when a
writer treated of the subject under consideration, I have omitted
all reference to him. For example, Villarceau states that Briinnow
treats of the theory of aberration, taking account of motion of the
solar system. Whether this however was in the earliest edition
of his spherical astronomy’ or not, I cannot ascertain.
Works treating of the solar motion, of the same typeas August
Tischner’s “Die Richtung der Sonnebewegung,” Giralomo Mar-
zocchi’s ‘Il sole e l’universo,” and William Sandeman’s “The Path
of the Sun . . . with an exposure of the fallacy of the precession
of the equinoxes,” I have not troubled to note, for reasons which
hardly need explanation.
‘See also, Nature, Vol. ui1., p. 487, 1895.
? Proc. Roy. Irish Acad.. 3, 1888, pp. 617 - 623 and Copernicus, 2, 1882, .
pp. 135 — 155.
3 Op. cit... t. X., p. 407. * Ibid... xin per:
§ Lehrbuch der sphirischen Astronomie, Berlin, 1851, Bro,
THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 217
(130) References in Popular Science Journals.—In general no
trouble has been taken in regard to references to the subject of
solar motion in popular science journals: the following brief lists
however contain such references as J have noted in “Nature” and
‘The English Mechanic.”
“ Nature.”
Year. Name. Vol. Page. Year. Name, Vol. Page.
1884 Plummer 29 246 1890 Boss 41 548
1885 Groth 31 215-6 1890 Stumpe 43 90
1886 Homann 33 450-1 1891 5 Clerke 44 572-4
1886 Kdovesligethy 34 131 1892 Porter 47 Al
1886 Ubaghs 34 158 1893 Risteen 48 208-9
1887 Ubaghs 36 = 45 1893 Bakhuyzen 48 401-2
1890 Eastman 4] 351 1895 Pannekoek 52 135
‘“‘Hinglish Mechanic.”
Year. Vol. Page. Year. Vol. Page. Year. Vol. Page.
Esoo. 2 sil 1871 12 444 1885 41 562
m i 389 1871 14 25 1891 54 175
Ha67 |. 5 43 1871 14 49 1897 OON O28
Sp i2 > 417 1880 31 5
(131) Zabulated Results.—In order that the whole biliography
of the subject, and the results obtained by the various investigators
may be readily examined, a synopsis has been given in Tables I.
and II., the former containing the literature preceding the first
numerical estimate of the direction of the motion, the latter the
literature from that first estimate onwards. In order that these
results may be immediately comparable, it was necessary that
they should be reduced toa common epoch. For this purpose
the date 1900-0 was selected, and each value has been corrected
to that date. It has not always been possible to ascertain with
certainty the date for which the values are assigned in the different
estimates: the difficulty has occurred to every one who has con-
sidered the matter, and is a fact is to be regretted. The uncer-
tainty is indicated by a query mark. In order to facilitate the
reduction, Table III. was prepared, which gives the precessional
218 G. H. KNIBBS.
ditferences in declination and right ascension for the period 1800
— 1900 approximately. In the computations no especial care was
taken to ensure accuracy to the nearest tenth of a degreee, since
the real uncertainty runs into degrees. The basis of Table III.
is, a denoting right ascension, 6 declination, in which N=+,S=-,
and ¢ is the period in years,
Aa/At = 0°0128 + 0°°00557 sin a tan 6
Ad/Aét = 0°00557 cos a. |
In each case the nearest star to any determination of the solar-
apex has been given : in most cases its coordinates have been taken
from the Auwers-Bradley catalogue, and reduced from the epoch
of that catalogue 1810 to 1900 for precession merely, the small
correction for proper motion being neglected.
These resulting positions for the epoch 1900, for the solar-apex
and for the nearest stars, have in each case been plotted in the
illustrative figures. In the projection employed the celestial equator
and the 240° circle of right ascension have been uniformly divided.
The radii of the circles of declination are determined on the
polyconic system. The arcs of right ascension are circular, the
centres lying on the equator and so determined that the intercepted
arcs on the parallel of 60° declination shall be one half of those at
the equator. For mere diagrammatic purposes the distortion is
not serious.
CONCLUSION.
(132) In the Ephemeris of the Observatory of Rio de Janeiro
for 1900 it is stated that the approximate codrdinates for the solar
motion are?
R.A. = 280°, D. = + 40°
the point being in the constellation Hercules. It will be manifest
however, from the results tabulated in IJ. and shewn in the illus-
+O Sol, centro de attraccio dos planetas, nao é fixo no espaco. As
observacées estellares provao que elle se desloca, arrastandando comsigo
o systema planetar e dirigendo-se para um ponto denominado Apez, situado
na constellagao de Hercules, e cujas coordendas approximadas sao :—
R.A. = 280°, D.= 40°.—Annuario de 1900, p. 104.
THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 219
trative figure, that this statement is ill-founded. Neither the
direction nor the quantity of the solar motion has yet been ascer-
tained to a high order of precision, nor has the best method of
determination been established beyond dispute. The general
mean of the whole of the results, would indicate a point approx-
imately having the coordinates, and velocity,
R.A. = 270-5, D.= +23°9, V.=15°3, miles= 24-6 kilometres.
The question as to the value of this result, turns however upon
the decision as to whether the Besselian, or Argelanderian or
Airy method should be followed, and to some extent upon the
definition of what is meant by the solar motion in space. This it
ls not proposed here to inquire into. It will suffice to say that,
per se, a mere mean has no strong claim to acceptance. In the
absence however of decisive evidence that a particular solution
should be adopted, such a mean can be taken as affording on the
whole a very probable value.
In conclusion, I desire to express my appreciation of the very
kind way in which the astronomical literature of the Sydney
Observatory has been placed at my disposal by the Government
Astronomer, Mr. H. C. Russell, B.a., C.M.G., F.R.S., etc., and my
thanks to that gentleman for his kindness and courtesy ; also to
Mr. J. Tebbutt, F.p.a.s., etc., proprietor of the Observatory at
Windsor, for similar kindness and courtesy.
Figures 1 and 1 (a), and Tables I., II. and III., will be found ,
in the subsequent pages.
220 G. H. KNIBBS.
280° 270°
Fig. 1.
Round dots shew the position of the solar apex, reduced to the instant
1900°0. |
The reference number corresponding to the paragraph number in the
Bibliography and History, is denoted by vertical figures thus :—86.
Mean Result, excluding results (1254), not shewn,
R.A.=270°5; D.= + 23°°9; V.=15°3 miles per second.
THE SUN’S MOTION IN SPACE. 221
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